Verification of the Accuscan gold reader and RIDA smart phone application rapid test kits in detection and quantification of aflatoxin levels in maize from selected regions in Kenya
Main Article Content
Keywords
Aflatoxins, liquid chromatography, quantification, rapid test kits
Abstract
The study aimed to verify the effectiveness of two detection kits namely, Accuscan gold reader and RIDA total aflatoxin smart phone application in assessing levels of aflatoxins’ contamination in maize. Three regions of Kenya were selected namely, Kisumu, Makueni and Kilifi. Confirmatory tests were done using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The Accuscan gold reader showed mean aflatoxin levels of 14.52, 5.18, and 3.04 μg/kg and RIDA smart phone application had levels of 26.08, 26.68, and 4.05 μg/kg for Kilifi, Makueni, and Kisumu, respectively. The LC-MS/MS confirmed the presence of AFB1 and AFB2 with AFB1 of 97.5 μg/kg in Makueni and 76.2 μg/kg in Kilifi. Maize from Kilifi and Makueni was contaminated and unfit for human and animal consumption. Also, low rainfall, high temperature and high relative humidity directly increased the levels of aflatoxins, resulting in contamination. Therefore, the detection kits are recommended for use by maize farmers. Confirmatory tests should be done with maize having levels of aflatoxin above 10 μg/kg. Adequate drying and handling of maize and proper storage with good aeration should be ensured.
References
AccuScan Gold Reader. Neogen Europe. Available at: www.neogeneurope.com.
Agriopoulou, S., Stamatelopoulos, E. and Vardakas, T., 2020. Advances in analysis and detection of major mycotoxins in foods. Foods 9(518): 1–23. 10.3390/foods.9040518
Bangar, P.S., Sharma, N., Bhardwaj, A. and Phimolsiripo, Y., 2022. Lactic acid bacteria: a bio-green preservative against mycotoxins for food safety and shelf-life extension. Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods 14(2): 13–31. 10.15586/qas.v14i2.1014
Birgen, J.K., Cheruiyot, R.C. and Akwa, T.E., 2020. Mycotoxin Contamination of Stored Maize in Kenya and the Associated Fungi. Journal of Plant Pathology Research 2(1): 7–13. 10.36959/394/620
Cvak, B., Warth, B., Atehnkeng, J., Parich, A., Moritz, A., Sulyok, M., et al. 2021. Evaluating the performance of lateral flow devices for total aflatoxins with special emphasis on their robustness under sub-Saharan conditions. Toxins 13(742): 1–16. 10.3390/toxins13110742
Daou, R., Joubrane, K., Maroun, G.R., Khabbaz, R.L., Ismail, A. and El Khoury, A., 2021. Mycotoxins: factors influencing production and control strategies. AIMS Agriculture and Food 6(1): 416–447. 10.3934/agrfood.2021025
De Souza, C., Khaneghah, M.A. and Oliveira, F.A.C., 2021. The occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in industrial and traditional fermented milk: a systematic review study. Italian Journal of Food Science 33(Suppl.1): 12–23. 10.15586/ijfs.v33isp1.1982
Jaetzold, R., Schmidt, H., Hornetz, B. and Shisanya, C., 2006. Farm management handbook of Kenya. Volume II, Part B: natural conditions and farm management information, Volume II, Second edition, Part C. East Kenya, (subpart C1, Eastern province) pp. 355–467. Ministry of agriculture, Kenya, in cooperation with the German agency for technical cooperation (GTZ). Printed in Nairobi. Design and layout by Jan Wieczorek, Trier, Germany.
Jaetzold, R., Schmidt, H., Hornetz, B. and Shisanya, C., 2009. Farm management handbook of Kenya. Volume II, Part B: natural conditions and farm management information, Volume II, Second edition, Part A. Western Kenya, (subpart A2 Nyanza province) pp. 459–570. Ministry of agriculture, Kenya, in cooperation with the German agency for technical cooperation (GTZ). Printed by continental graphics, Nairobi. Layout by Susanne Meissner and Ruben Kempf, Trier, Germany.
Jaetzold, R., Schmidt, H., Hornetz, B. and Shisanya, C., 2012. Farm management handbook of Kenya. Volume II, Part B: natural conditions and farm management information, Volume II, Second edition, Part C. natural conditions and farm management information, east Kenya, (subpart C2 Coast province) pp. 245–354. Ministry of agriculture, Kenya, in Cooperation with the German agency for international cooperation (GIZ). Printed by Impress Communications, Nairobi 2012. Layout by Ruben Kempf, Trier, Germany.
Kangethe, K.E., Korhonen, H., Marimba, A.K., Nduhiu, G., Mungatu, K.J., Okoth, A.S., et al. 2017. Management and mitigation of health risks associated with the occurrence of mycotoxins along the maize value chain in two counties in Kenya. Food Quality and Safety 1(4): 268–274. 10.1093/fqsafe/fyx025
Keller, B., Russo, T., Rembold, F., Chauhan, Y., Battilani, P., Wenndt, A., et al. 2022. The potential for aflatoxin predictive risk modelling in sub-Saharan Africa: a review. World Mycotoxin Journal 15(2): 101–118. 10.3920/WMJ2021.2683
Khaneghah, M.A., Fakhri, Y., Gahruie, H.H., Niakousari, M. and Sant’Ana, A.S., 2019. Mycotoxins in cereal-based products during 24 years (1983–2017): a global systematic review. Trends in Food Science and Technology 9: 95–105. 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.06.007
Kilonzo, M.R., Imungi, K.J., Muiru, M.W., Lamuka, O.P. and Njage, M.K.P., 2014 Household dietary exposure to aflatoxins from maize and maize products in Kenya, Food Additives & Contaminants Part A 31(12): 2055–2062. 10.1080/19440049.2014.976595
Lattanzio, T. M.V., Holst, C., Lippolis, V., Girolamo, A., Logrieco, F.A., Hans, G.J., et al. 2019. Evaluation of mycotoxin screening tests in a verification study involving first time users. Toxins 11(129): 1–18. 10.3390/toxins11020129
Le, N. Q., Roman, B., Draksna, D., Gilbert, L., Gonzales, K., Klein, F., et al. 2019. Reveal Q+ MAX® for detection of total aflatoxin in corn, almonds, pistachios, walnuts, and peanuts, AOAC, performance tested method SM 071801. Journal of AOAC International 102(2): 525–531. 10.5740/jaoacint.18-0298
Lindahl, J. F., Kagera, I. N. and Grace, D., 2018. Aflatoxin M1 levels in different marketed milk products in Nairobi, Kenya. Mycotoxin Research 34(4): 289–295. 10.1007/s12550-018-0323-4
Luis, M.J. and Kemerait, C.R., 2015. Assessment of the sensitivity and accuracy of imunochromatographic test strips in the qualitative detection of aflatoxin contamination in peanuts. Peanut Science 42(1): 49–55. 10.3146/0095-3679-42.1.49
Muga, C.F., Marenya, O.M. and Workneh, S.T., 2019. Effect of temperature, relative humidity and moisture on aflatoxin contamination of stored maize kernels. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science 25(2): 271–277.
Mburu, P., 2021. Kenya: Rogue maize millers put profit above consumers’ health, www.nationmedia.com. Accessed 16 September 2021.
Nyangi, C., Mugula, J.K., Beed, F., Boni, S., Koyano, E. and Sulyok, M., 2016. Aflatoxins and fumonisin contamination of marketed maize, maize bran and maize used as animal feed in Northern Tanzania. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 16(3): 11054–11065. 10.18697/ajfand.75.ILRI07
Negash D., 2018. A review of aflatoxin: occurrence, prevention, and gaps in both food and feed safety. Journal of Nutrition Health Food Engineering 8(2): 190–197. 10.15406/jnhfe.2018.08.00268
Nji, Q.N., Babalola, O.O., Ekwomadu, T.I., Nleya, N. and Mwanza, M. 2022. Six main contributing factors to high levels of mycotoxin contamination in African foods. Toxins 14(318): 1–26. 10.3390/toxins14050318
Obonyo, M.A and Salano, E.N., 2018. Perennial and seasonal contamination of maize by aflatoxins in eastern Kenya. Food Contamination 5(6): 1–5. 10.1186/s40550-018-0069-y
Omara, T., 2019. Aflatoxigenic contamination of white maize (Zea mays L.) from some selected Ugandan districts. PeerJ Preprints pp. 1–12. 10.7287/peerj.preprints.27888v1
Omara, T., Kiprop, K.A., Wangila, P., Wacoo, P.A., Kagoya. S., Nteziyaremye, P., et al. 2021. The scourge of aflatoxins in Kenya: a 60-year. Journal of Food Quality 2021: 1–31. 10.1155/2021/8899839
Onyedum, S.C., Adefolalu, F.S., Muhammad, L.H., Apeh, O.D., Agada, S.M M.R. Imienwanrin, S.M.M.R., et al. 2020. Occurrence of major mycotoxins and their dietary exposure in North-Central Nigeria staples, Scientific African 7: 1–9. 10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00188
Ouakhssase, A., Chahid, A., Choubbane, H., Aitmazirt, A. and Addi, E. A., 2019. Optimization and validation of a liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the determination of aflatoxin in maize, Heliyon 5(5): 1–9. 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01565
Pumpa, K., Lacorn, M., Mattner, M., Steinmann, D. and Wolf, J., 2021. Next generation of LFD testing–smartphone-based mycotoxin analysis with RIDAVRSMART APP. Journal of AOAC International 104(1): 49–52. 10.1093/jaoacint/qsaa117
Sirma, J.A., Lindahl, F.J., Makitae, K., Senerwa, D., Mtimet, N., Kang’ethe, K.E., et al. (2018). The impacts of aflatoxin standards on health and nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa: The case of Kenya. Global Food Security 18: 57–61. 10.1016/j.gfs.2018.08.001
Sirma, A. J., Makitae, K., Grace, D., Senerwa, D., & Lindahl, J. F. (2019). Aflatoxin Exposure from Milk in Rural Kenya and the Contribution to the Risk of Liver Cancer. Toxins 11(469): 1–12. 10.3390/toxins11080469
Temba, B.A., Darnell, R.E., Gichangi, A., Lwezaura, D., Pardey, P.G., Harvey, J.J., et al. (2021). The Influence of Weather on the Occurrence of Aflatoxin B1 in Harvested Maize from Kenya and Tanzania. Foods 10(216): 1–13. 10.3390/foods10020216
Turner, W. N., Bramhmbhatt, H., Szabo-Vezse, M., Poma, A., Coker, R., et al. 2015. Analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins: an update (2009–2014). Analytica Chimica Acta 901: 12–33. 10.1016/j.aca.2015.10.013
Wacoo, A.P., Wendiro, D., Nanyonga, S., Hawumba, J.F., Sybesma, W. and Kort, R., 2018. Feasibility of a novel on-site detection method for aflatoxin in maize flour from markets and selected households in Kampala, Uganda. Toxins 10(327): 1–12. 10.3390/toxins10080327
Wolf, K. and Schweigert, J.F., 2018. Mycotoxin analysis: a focus on rapid methods. Partnership for aflatoxin control in Africa (PACA) African union commission, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 1–56.
Yard, E.E., Daniel, H.J., Lewis, S.L., Ekaterina, R., Paliakov, M., Kim, A.A., et al. 2013. Human aflatoxin exposure in Kenya, Food Additives and Contaminants: Part A. 30(7): 1322–1331. 10.1080/19440049.2013.789558
Agriopoulou, S., Stamatelopoulos, E. and Vardakas, T., 2020. Advances in analysis and detection of major mycotoxins in foods. Foods 9(518): 1–23. 10.3390/foods.9040518
Bangar, P.S., Sharma, N., Bhardwaj, A. and Phimolsiripo, Y., 2022. Lactic acid bacteria: a bio-green preservative against mycotoxins for food safety and shelf-life extension. Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods 14(2): 13–31. 10.15586/qas.v14i2.1014
Birgen, J.K., Cheruiyot, R.C. and Akwa, T.E., 2020. Mycotoxin Contamination of Stored Maize in Kenya and the Associated Fungi. Journal of Plant Pathology Research 2(1): 7–13. 10.36959/394/620
Cvak, B., Warth, B., Atehnkeng, J., Parich, A., Moritz, A., Sulyok, M., et al. 2021. Evaluating the performance of lateral flow devices for total aflatoxins with special emphasis on their robustness under sub-Saharan conditions. Toxins 13(742): 1–16. 10.3390/toxins13110742
Daou, R., Joubrane, K., Maroun, G.R., Khabbaz, R.L., Ismail, A. and El Khoury, A., 2021. Mycotoxins: factors influencing production and control strategies. AIMS Agriculture and Food 6(1): 416–447. 10.3934/agrfood.2021025
De Souza, C., Khaneghah, M.A. and Oliveira, F.A.C., 2021. The occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in industrial and traditional fermented milk: a systematic review study. Italian Journal of Food Science 33(Suppl.1): 12–23. 10.15586/ijfs.v33isp1.1982
Jaetzold, R., Schmidt, H., Hornetz, B. and Shisanya, C., 2006. Farm management handbook of Kenya. Volume II, Part B: natural conditions and farm management information, Volume II, Second edition, Part C. East Kenya, (subpart C1, Eastern province) pp. 355–467. Ministry of agriculture, Kenya, in cooperation with the German agency for technical cooperation (GTZ). Printed in Nairobi. Design and layout by Jan Wieczorek, Trier, Germany.
Jaetzold, R., Schmidt, H., Hornetz, B. and Shisanya, C., 2009. Farm management handbook of Kenya. Volume II, Part B: natural conditions and farm management information, Volume II, Second edition, Part A. Western Kenya, (subpart A2 Nyanza province) pp. 459–570. Ministry of agriculture, Kenya, in cooperation with the German agency for technical cooperation (GTZ). Printed by continental graphics, Nairobi. Layout by Susanne Meissner and Ruben Kempf, Trier, Germany.
Jaetzold, R., Schmidt, H., Hornetz, B. and Shisanya, C., 2012. Farm management handbook of Kenya. Volume II, Part B: natural conditions and farm management information, Volume II, Second edition, Part C. natural conditions and farm management information, east Kenya, (subpart C2 Coast province) pp. 245–354. Ministry of agriculture, Kenya, in Cooperation with the German agency for international cooperation (GIZ). Printed by Impress Communications, Nairobi 2012. Layout by Ruben Kempf, Trier, Germany.
Kangethe, K.E., Korhonen, H., Marimba, A.K., Nduhiu, G., Mungatu, K.J., Okoth, A.S., et al. 2017. Management and mitigation of health risks associated with the occurrence of mycotoxins along the maize value chain in two counties in Kenya. Food Quality and Safety 1(4): 268–274. 10.1093/fqsafe/fyx025
Keller, B., Russo, T., Rembold, F., Chauhan, Y., Battilani, P., Wenndt, A., et al. 2022. The potential for aflatoxin predictive risk modelling in sub-Saharan Africa: a review. World Mycotoxin Journal 15(2): 101–118. 10.3920/WMJ2021.2683
Khaneghah, M.A., Fakhri, Y., Gahruie, H.H., Niakousari, M. and Sant’Ana, A.S., 2019. Mycotoxins in cereal-based products during 24 years (1983–2017): a global systematic review. Trends in Food Science and Technology 9: 95–105. 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.06.007
Kilonzo, M.R., Imungi, K.J., Muiru, M.W., Lamuka, O.P. and Njage, M.K.P., 2014 Household dietary exposure to aflatoxins from maize and maize products in Kenya, Food Additives & Contaminants Part A 31(12): 2055–2062. 10.1080/19440049.2014.976595
Lattanzio, T. M.V., Holst, C., Lippolis, V., Girolamo, A., Logrieco, F.A., Hans, G.J., et al. 2019. Evaluation of mycotoxin screening tests in a verification study involving first time users. Toxins 11(129): 1–18. 10.3390/toxins11020129
Le, N. Q., Roman, B., Draksna, D., Gilbert, L., Gonzales, K., Klein, F., et al. 2019. Reveal Q+ MAX® for detection of total aflatoxin in corn, almonds, pistachios, walnuts, and peanuts, AOAC, performance tested method SM 071801. Journal of AOAC International 102(2): 525–531. 10.5740/jaoacint.18-0298
Lindahl, J. F., Kagera, I. N. and Grace, D., 2018. Aflatoxin M1 levels in different marketed milk products in Nairobi, Kenya. Mycotoxin Research 34(4): 289–295. 10.1007/s12550-018-0323-4
Luis, M.J. and Kemerait, C.R., 2015. Assessment of the sensitivity and accuracy of imunochromatographic test strips in the qualitative detection of aflatoxin contamination in peanuts. Peanut Science 42(1): 49–55. 10.3146/0095-3679-42.1.49
Muga, C.F., Marenya, O.M. and Workneh, S.T., 2019. Effect of temperature, relative humidity and moisture on aflatoxin contamination of stored maize kernels. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science 25(2): 271–277.
Mburu, P., 2021. Kenya: Rogue maize millers put profit above consumers’ health, www.nationmedia.com. Accessed 16 September 2021.
Nyangi, C., Mugula, J.K., Beed, F., Boni, S., Koyano, E. and Sulyok, M., 2016. Aflatoxins and fumonisin contamination of marketed maize, maize bran and maize used as animal feed in Northern Tanzania. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 16(3): 11054–11065. 10.18697/ajfand.75.ILRI07
Negash D., 2018. A review of aflatoxin: occurrence, prevention, and gaps in both food and feed safety. Journal of Nutrition Health Food Engineering 8(2): 190–197. 10.15406/jnhfe.2018.08.00268
Nji, Q.N., Babalola, O.O., Ekwomadu, T.I., Nleya, N. and Mwanza, M. 2022. Six main contributing factors to high levels of mycotoxin contamination in African foods. Toxins 14(318): 1–26. 10.3390/toxins14050318
Obonyo, M.A and Salano, E.N., 2018. Perennial and seasonal contamination of maize by aflatoxins in eastern Kenya. Food Contamination 5(6): 1–5. 10.1186/s40550-018-0069-y
Omara, T., 2019. Aflatoxigenic contamination of white maize (Zea mays L.) from some selected Ugandan districts. PeerJ Preprints pp. 1–12. 10.7287/peerj.preprints.27888v1
Omara, T., Kiprop, K.A., Wangila, P., Wacoo, P.A., Kagoya. S., Nteziyaremye, P., et al. 2021. The scourge of aflatoxins in Kenya: a 60-year. Journal of Food Quality 2021: 1–31. 10.1155/2021/8899839
Onyedum, S.C., Adefolalu, F.S., Muhammad, L.H., Apeh, O.D., Agada, S.M M.R. Imienwanrin, S.M.M.R., et al. 2020. Occurrence of major mycotoxins and their dietary exposure in North-Central Nigeria staples, Scientific African 7: 1–9. 10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00188
Ouakhssase, A., Chahid, A., Choubbane, H., Aitmazirt, A. and Addi, E. A., 2019. Optimization and validation of a liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the determination of aflatoxin in maize, Heliyon 5(5): 1–9. 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01565
Pumpa, K., Lacorn, M., Mattner, M., Steinmann, D. and Wolf, J., 2021. Next generation of LFD testing–smartphone-based mycotoxin analysis with RIDAVRSMART APP. Journal of AOAC International 104(1): 49–52. 10.1093/jaoacint/qsaa117
Sirma, J.A., Lindahl, F.J., Makitae, K., Senerwa, D., Mtimet, N., Kang’ethe, K.E., et al. (2018). The impacts of aflatoxin standards on health and nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa: The case of Kenya. Global Food Security 18: 57–61. 10.1016/j.gfs.2018.08.001
Sirma, A. J., Makitae, K., Grace, D., Senerwa, D., & Lindahl, J. F. (2019). Aflatoxin Exposure from Milk in Rural Kenya and the Contribution to the Risk of Liver Cancer. Toxins 11(469): 1–12. 10.3390/toxins11080469
Temba, B.A., Darnell, R.E., Gichangi, A., Lwezaura, D., Pardey, P.G., Harvey, J.J., et al. (2021). The Influence of Weather on the Occurrence of Aflatoxin B1 in Harvested Maize from Kenya and Tanzania. Foods 10(216): 1–13. 10.3390/foods10020216
Turner, W. N., Bramhmbhatt, H., Szabo-Vezse, M., Poma, A., Coker, R., et al. 2015. Analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins: an update (2009–2014). Analytica Chimica Acta 901: 12–33. 10.1016/j.aca.2015.10.013
Wacoo, A.P., Wendiro, D., Nanyonga, S., Hawumba, J.F., Sybesma, W. and Kort, R., 2018. Feasibility of a novel on-site detection method for aflatoxin in maize flour from markets and selected households in Kampala, Uganda. Toxins 10(327): 1–12. 10.3390/toxins10080327
Wolf, K. and Schweigert, J.F., 2018. Mycotoxin analysis: a focus on rapid methods. Partnership for aflatoxin control in Africa (PACA) African union commission, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 1–56.
Yard, E.E., Daniel, H.J., Lewis, S.L., Ekaterina, R., Paliakov, M., Kim, A.A., et al. 2013. Human aflatoxin exposure in Kenya, Food Additives and Contaminants: Part A. 30(7): 1322–1331. 10.1080/19440049.2013.789558
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