Environmental contaminants in foods and feeds in the light of climate change
Main Article Content
Keywords
climate change, environmental contaminants, food, forest fires, human exposure, mercury methylation, water re-use
Abstract
Introduction Environmental contaminants are groups of unwanted, ubiquitous chemicals, found in food via weathering of the earth’s crust, combustion (natural or anthropogenic), industrial uses or as unwanted bi-products of manufacturing processes. Evidence suggests that the climate is becoming hotter and more variable, resulting in rising sea levels, warmer oceans, more forest fires and more extreme events such as floods, storms, cyclones, droughts and landslips. Methods Sources of environmental contaminants into food or feeds are described. The impact of climate change on the formation, distribution or uptake of these contaminants is addressed with reference to the scientific literature. Results Climate change may result in increased atmospheric release and mobilization of environmental contaminants, an increased rate of mercury methylation, changes in biological systems and increased applications of contaminants to soils and crops from water re-use. Conversely, climate change policies, to reduce carbon emissions, are driving energy efficiencies, leading to reduced emissions of dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and heavy metals. Conclusion Climate change is likely to increase human exposure to arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls where food and feeds may be contaminated by forest fires, water re-use or increased methylation (mercury only). The extent of this change is yet to be quantified.
References
American Chemistry Council (ACC; Chlorine ChemistryDivision). (2010) Trends in dioxin emissions and exposure in the United States. Available at http://www.dioxinfacts.org/sources_trends/trends_emissions.html
Al Nasir F., Batarseh M.I. (2008) Agricultural reuse of reclaimed water and uptake of organic compounds: pilot study at Mutah University wastewater treatment plant, Jordan. Chemosphere, 72, 1203–1214.
Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry (ATSDR). (1999) Mercury: toxicological profile. Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/TP.asp?id=115&tid=24
Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry (ATSDR). (2001)ToxFAQs for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts17.html
Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry (ATSDR). (2007a) ToxGuide for lead, Pb. Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp.asp?id=96&tid=22
Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry (ATSDR).(2007b) Tox Guide for arsenic. Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxguides/toxguide-2.pdf
Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry (ATSDR). (2008)Public health statement for cadmium. Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/PHS/PHS.asp?id=46&tid=15
Birnbaum L.S., Staskal D.F. (2004) Brominated flame retardants: cause for concern? Environmental Health Perspectives, 112,9–17.
Biswas A., Blum J.D., Keeler G.J. (2008) Mercury storage in surface soils in a central Washington forest and estimated release during the 2001 Rex Creek Fire. Science of the Total Environment, 404, 129–138.
Booth S., Zeller D. (2005) Mercury, food webs, and marine mammals: implications of diet and climate change for human health. Environmental Health Perspectives,113, 521–526.
Boxall A.B.A., Hardy A., Beulke S., Boucard T., Burgin L., FalloonP.D., Haygarth P.M., Hutchinson T., Kovats R.S., Leonardi G., Levy L.S., Nichols G., Parsons S.A., Potts L., Stone D., Topp E., Turley D.B., Walsh K., Wellington E.M.H., Williams R.J.(2009) Impacts of climate change on indirect human exposure to pathogens and chemicals from agriculture. Environmental Health Perspectives,117, 508–514.
Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). (2006) Code of practice for the prevention and reduction of dioxin and dioxin-like PCB contamination in foods and feeds. CAC/RCP 62-2006. Available at http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/.../CXP_062e.pdf
Carrie J., Wang F., Sanei H., MacDonald R.W., Outridge P.M., Stern G.A. (2010) Increasing contaminant burdens in an arctic fish, burbot (Lota lota), in a warming climate. Environmental Science and Technology, 44, 316–322.
Cirillo T., Montuori P., Mainardi P., Russo I., Fasano E., Triassi M., Amodio-Cocchieri R. (2010) Assessment of the dietary habits and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure in primary schoolchildren. Food Additives and Contaminants Part A, 27, 1025–1039.
DEFRA. (2007). National Implementation Plan for the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. DEFRA, United Kingdom.
Dittmar J., Voegelin A., Roberts L.C., Hug S.J., Saha G.C., AliM.A., Badruzzaman A.B.M., Kretzschmar R. (2007) Spatial distribution and temporal variability of arsenic in irrigated ricefields in Bangladesh. 2. Paddy soil. Environmental Science and Technology,41, 5967–5972.
D’Silva K., Fernandes A., Rose M. (2004) Brominated organic micropollutants – igniting the flame retardant issue. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 34, 141–207.
European Commission (EC). (2002) Opinion of the scientific committee on food on the risks to human health of polycyclic aromatic Hydrocarbons in food. Brussels, EuropeanCommission. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out153_en.pdf#xml=http://158.167.146.104:7001/www/xmlread.jsp?ServerSpec=158.167.146.104:9000&K2DocKey=http%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Ffood%2Ffs%2Fsc%2Fscf%2Fout153_en.pdf%40EUROPACORE_eceu_x&QuetyText=SCF+CS+CNTM+PAH+29 [Last accessed 25 May 2010].
European Commission (EC). (2009) Information exchange onreduction of dioxin emissions from domestic sources.Available at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/dioxin/pdf/report09
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). (2008) Polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons in food [1] – Scientific opinion of the panel on contaminants in the food chain. Available at http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1211902034842.htm
Fernandes A., White S., D’Silva K., Rose M. (2004) Simultaneous determination of PCDDs, PCDFs, PCBs and PBDEs in food. Talanta,63, 1147–1155.
Galarneau E., Makar P.A., Sassi M., Diamond M.L. (2007)Estimation of atmospheric emissions of six semivolatile polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Southern Canada and the United States by use of an emissions processing system. Environmental Science and Technology,41, 4205–4213.
Hale R.C., La Guardia M.J., Harvey E., Gaylor M.O., Mainor T.M.(2006) Brominated flame retardant concentrations and trendsin abiotic media. Chemosphere,64, 181–186.
Hung H., Kallenborn R., Breivik K., Su Y., Brorstr ?om-Lund ?en E.,Olafsdottir K., Thorlacius J.M., Lepp ?anen S., Bossi R., Skov H.,Man S., Patton G.W., Stern G., Sverko E., Fellin P. (2010) Atmospheric monitoring of organic pollutants in the Arcticunder the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP): 1993–2006. Science of the Total Environment, 408,2854–2873.
Intwala A., Patey T.D., Polet D.M., Twiss M.R. (2008) Nutritivesubstitution of zinc by cadmium and cobalt in phytoplankton isolated from the lower Great Lakes. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 34, 1–11.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2007)Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007:The Physical Science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Changeeds Solomon S., Qin D., Manning M.,Chen Z., Marquis M., Averyt K.B., Tignor M., Hl M. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge, UK, pp 1–18.
Khan M.A., Islam M.R., Panaullah G.M., Duxbury J.M.,Jahiruddin M., Loeppert R.H. (2010) Accumulation of arsenicin soil and rice under wetland condition in Bangladesh. Plant Soil, 333, 263–274.
Kim E.J., Oh J.E., Chang Y.S. (2003) Effects of forest fire on thelevel and distribution of PCDD/Fs and PAHs in soil. Science ofthe Total Environment, 311, 177–189.
Kulkarni P.S., Crespo J.G., Afonso C.A.M. (2008) Dioxins sourcesand current remediation technologies - a review. Environment International, 34, 139–153.
Lake I.R., Foxall C.D., Lovett A.A., Fernandes A., Dowding A.,White S., Rose M. (2005) Effects of river flooding on PCDD/Fand PCB levels in cows’ milk, soil, and grass. Environmental Science and Technology, 39, 9033–9038.
Lakind J.S. (2007) Recent global trends and physiologic origins of dioxins and furans in human milk. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology,17, 510–524.
Liem A.K.D., F ?urst P., Rappe C. (2000) Exposure of populations to dioxins and related compounds. Food Additives and Contaminants Part A,17, 241–259.
Maliszewska-Kordybach B., Smreczak B., Klimkowicz-Pawlas A.(2009) Concentrations, sources, and spatial distribution of individual polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) inagricultural soils in the Eastern part of the EU: Polandas a case study. Science of the Total Environment, 407,3746–3753.
Manuel M. (2006) In Katrina’s wake. Environmental Health Perspectives,114, A32–A39.
Mart ??-CID R., Llobet J.M., Castell V., Domingo J.L. (2008) Evolution of the dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Catalonia, Spain. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 46, 3163–3171.
NASA. (2010) Volcanoes climate change. Available at http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Volcano/printall.php
Parry M.L., Canziani O.F., Palutik of J.P., Van Der Linden P.J.,Hanson C.E. (eds.) Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. : Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Podur J., Wotton M. (2010) Will climate change overwhelm firemanagement capacity? Ecological Modelling, 221, 1301–1309.
Roberts L.C., Hug S.J., Dittmar J., Voegelin A., Kretzschmar R.,Wehrli B., Cirpka O.A., Saha G.C., Ashraf Ali M.,Badruzzaman A.B.M. (2010) Arsenic release from paddy soils during monsoon flooding. Nature Geoscience,3, 53–59.
Rose M., Baxter M., Brereton N., Baskaran C. (2010) Dietaryexposure to metals and other elements in the 2006 UK total diet study and some trends over the last 30 years. Food Additives and Contaminants Part A,27, 1380–1404.
Rose M., White S., MaCarthur R., Petch R.G., Holland J., DamantA.P. (2007) Single-laboratory validation of a GC/MS method for the determination of 27 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in oils and fats. Food Additives and Contaminants PartA, 24, 635–651.
Rosenzweig C., Casassa G., Karoly D.J., Imeson A., Liu C., MenzelA.S.R., Rawlins S., Root T.L., Seguin B., Tryjianowski P. (2007) Assessment of observed changes and responses in natural andmanaged systems. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group IIto the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Changeeds Parry M.L., Canziani O.F., PalutikofJ.P., Van Der Linden P.J., Hanson C.E. Cambrige University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 79–131.
Satarug S., Garrett S.H., Sens M.A., Sens D.A. (2010) Cadmium, environmental exposure, and health outcomes. Environmental Health Perspectives,118, 182–190.
Stachel B., Christoph E.H., Gotz R., Herrmann T., Kruger F.,Kuhn T., Lay J., Loffler J., PAPKE O., Reincke H., Schroter-Kermani C., Schwartz R., Steeg E., Stehr D., Uhlig S., UmlaufG. (2006) Contamination of the alluvial plain, feeding-stuffs and foodstuffs with polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) and mercury from the River Elbe in the light of the flood event in August 2002. Science of the Total Environment, 364, 96–112.
Startin J.R., Rose M.D. (2003). In: Dioxins and Health, 2nd Edition eds Arnold Schecter A, Gasiewicz T pp. 89–136, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, USA.
Takizawa Y. (2000) Understanding minamata disease andstrategies to prevent further environmental contamination by methylmercury. Water Science and Technology, 42,139–146.
Tirado M.C., Clarke R., Jaykus L.A., McQuatters-Gollop A., Frank J.M. (2010) Climate change and food safety: a review. Food Research International, 43, 1745–1765.
Turetsky M.R., Harden J.W., Friedli H.R., Flannigan M., Payne N.,Crock J., Radke L. (2006) Wildfires threaten mercury stocks innorthern soils. Geophysical Research Letters, 33, L16403, doi:10.1029/2005GL025595.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2002) Global mercury assessment. Available at http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/report/GMA-report-TOC.htm
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). (1992) FCCC/INFORMAL/84 GE.05-62220 (E) 200705. Available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2009a) Summary results of sediment sampling conducted by the environmental protection agency in response to Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Available at http://www.epa.gov/katrina/testresults/sediments/summary.html
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2009b) Mercury, health effects. Available at http://www.epa.gov/hg/effects.htm
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2009c) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Available at http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/hazard/tsd/pcbs/pubs/about.htm
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2010) Anexposure assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers.Available at http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=210404
US Geological Survey (USGS). (2010) Minerals. Available at http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity
Vannoort R., Thomson B. (2005a).2003/04 New Zealand Total Diet Survey. New Zealand Food Safety Authority, Wellington. Available at http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/science/research-projects/total-diet-survey/reports/full-final-report/nzfsa-total-diet.pdf
Vannoort R., Thomson B. (2005b).Auxiliary Data, 2003/04 NewZealand Total Diet Survey Agricultural Compound Residues,Selected Contaminants and Nutrients. New Zealand FoodSafety Authority, Wellington. Available at http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/science/research-projects/total-diet-survey/reports/full-final-report/8438-nzfsa-back.pdf
World Health Organization (WHO). (2001) Arsenic and arseniccompounds. United Nations Environment Programme, International Labour Organization, World Health Organization. Available at http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc224.htm#1.0
Wilcke W. (2000) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil - a review. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science,163,229–248.
Al Nasir F., Batarseh M.I. (2008) Agricultural reuse of reclaimed water and uptake of organic compounds: pilot study at Mutah University wastewater treatment plant, Jordan. Chemosphere, 72, 1203–1214.
Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry (ATSDR). (1999) Mercury: toxicological profile. Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/TP.asp?id=115&tid=24
Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry (ATSDR). (2001)ToxFAQs for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts17.html
Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry (ATSDR). (2007a) ToxGuide for lead, Pb. Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp.asp?id=96&tid=22
Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry (ATSDR).(2007b) Tox Guide for arsenic. Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxguides/toxguide-2.pdf
Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry (ATSDR). (2008)Public health statement for cadmium. Available at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/PHS/PHS.asp?id=46&tid=15
Birnbaum L.S., Staskal D.F. (2004) Brominated flame retardants: cause for concern? Environmental Health Perspectives, 112,9–17.
Biswas A., Blum J.D., Keeler G.J. (2008) Mercury storage in surface soils in a central Washington forest and estimated release during the 2001 Rex Creek Fire. Science of the Total Environment, 404, 129–138.
Booth S., Zeller D. (2005) Mercury, food webs, and marine mammals: implications of diet and climate change for human health. Environmental Health Perspectives,113, 521–526.
Boxall A.B.A., Hardy A., Beulke S., Boucard T., Burgin L., FalloonP.D., Haygarth P.M., Hutchinson T., Kovats R.S., Leonardi G., Levy L.S., Nichols G., Parsons S.A., Potts L., Stone D., Topp E., Turley D.B., Walsh K., Wellington E.M.H., Williams R.J.(2009) Impacts of climate change on indirect human exposure to pathogens and chemicals from agriculture. Environmental Health Perspectives,117, 508–514.
Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). (2006) Code of practice for the prevention and reduction of dioxin and dioxin-like PCB contamination in foods and feeds. CAC/RCP 62-2006. Available at http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/.../CXP_062e.pdf
Carrie J., Wang F., Sanei H., MacDonald R.W., Outridge P.M., Stern G.A. (2010) Increasing contaminant burdens in an arctic fish, burbot (Lota lota), in a warming climate. Environmental Science and Technology, 44, 316–322.
Cirillo T., Montuori P., Mainardi P., Russo I., Fasano E., Triassi M., Amodio-Cocchieri R. (2010) Assessment of the dietary habits and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure in primary schoolchildren. Food Additives and Contaminants Part A, 27, 1025–1039.
DEFRA. (2007). National Implementation Plan for the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. DEFRA, United Kingdom.
Dittmar J., Voegelin A., Roberts L.C., Hug S.J., Saha G.C., AliM.A., Badruzzaman A.B.M., Kretzschmar R. (2007) Spatial distribution and temporal variability of arsenic in irrigated ricefields in Bangladesh. 2. Paddy soil. Environmental Science and Technology,41, 5967–5972.
D’Silva K., Fernandes A., Rose M. (2004) Brominated organic micropollutants – igniting the flame retardant issue. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 34, 141–207.
European Commission (EC). (2002) Opinion of the scientific committee on food on the risks to human health of polycyclic aromatic Hydrocarbons in food. Brussels, EuropeanCommission. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out153_en.pdf#xml=http://158.167.146.104:7001/www/xmlread.jsp?ServerSpec=158.167.146.104:9000&K2DocKey=http%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Ffood%2Ffs%2Fsc%2Fscf%2Fout153_en.pdf%40EUROPACORE_eceu_x&QuetyText=SCF+CS+CNTM+PAH+29 [Last accessed 25 May 2010].
European Commission (EC). (2009) Information exchange onreduction of dioxin emissions from domestic sources.Available at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/dioxin/pdf/report09
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). (2008) Polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons in food [1] – Scientific opinion of the panel on contaminants in the food chain. Available at http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale-1178620753812_1211902034842.htm
Fernandes A., White S., D’Silva K., Rose M. (2004) Simultaneous determination of PCDDs, PCDFs, PCBs and PBDEs in food. Talanta,63, 1147–1155.
Galarneau E., Makar P.A., Sassi M., Diamond M.L. (2007)Estimation of atmospheric emissions of six semivolatile polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Southern Canada and the United States by use of an emissions processing system. Environmental Science and Technology,41, 4205–4213.
Hale R.C., La Guardia M.J., Harvey E., Gaylor M.O., Mainor T.M.(2006) Brominated flame retardant concentrations and trendsin abiotic media. Chemosphere,64, 181–186.
Hung H., Kallenborn R., Breivik K., Su Y., Brorstr ?om-Lund ?en E.,Olafsdottir K., Thorlacius J.M., Lepp ?anen S., Bossi R., Skov H.,Man S., Patton G.W., Stern G., Sverko E., Fellin P. (2010) Atmospheric monitoring of organic pollutants in the Arcticunder the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP): 1993–2006. Science of the Total Environment, 408,2854–2873.
Intwala A., Patey T.D., Polet D.M., Twiss M.R. (2008) Nutritivesubstitution of zinc by cadmium and cobalt in phytoplankton isolated from the lower Great Lakes. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 34, 1–11.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2007)Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007:The Physical Science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Changeeds Solomon S., Qin D., Manning M.,Chen Z., Marquis M., Averyt K.B., Tignor M., Hl M. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge, UK, pp 1–18.
Khan M.A., Islam M.R., Panaullah G.M., Duxbury J.M.,Jahiruddin M., Loeppert R.H. (2010) Accumulation of arsenicin soil and rice under wetland condition in Bangladesh. Plant Soil, 333, 263–274.
Kim E.J., Oh J.E., Chang Y.S. (2003) Effects of forest fire on thelevel and distribution of PCDD/Fs and PAHs in soil. Science ofthe Total Environment, 311, 177–189.
Kulkarni P.S., Crespo J.G., Afonso C.A.M. (2008) Dioxins sourcesand current remediation technologies - a review. Environment International, 34, 139–153.
Lake I.R., Foxall C.D., Lovett A.A., Fernandes A., Dowding A.,White S., Rose M. (2005) Effects of river flooding on PCDD/Fand PCB levels in cows’ milk, soil, and grass. Environmental Science and Technology, 39, 9033–9038.
Lakind J.S. (2007) Recent global trends and physiologic origins of dioxins and furans in human milk. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology,17, 510–524.
Liem A.K.D., F ?urst P., Rappe C. (2000) Exposure of populations to dioxins and related compounds. Food Additives and Contaminants Part A,17, 241–259.
Maliszewska-Kordybach B., Smreczak B., Klimkowicz-Pawlas A.(2009) Concentrations, sources, and spatial distribution of individual polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) inagricultural soils in the Eastern part of the EU: Polandas a case study. Science of the Total Environment, 407,3746–3753.
Manuel M. (2006) In Katrina’s wake. Environmental Health Perspectives,114, A32–A39.
Mart ??-CID R., Llobet J.M., Castell V., Domingo J.L. (2008) Evolution of the dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Catalonia, Spain. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 46, 3163–3171.
NASA. (2010) Volcanoes climate change. Available at http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Volcano/printall.php
Parry M.L., Canziani O.F., Palutik of J.P., Van Der Linden P.J.,Hanson C.E. (eds.) Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. : Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Podur J., Wotton M. (2010) Will climate change overwhelm firemanagement capacity? Ecological Modelling, 221, 1301–1309.
Roberts L.C., Hug S.J., Dittmar J., Voegelin A., Kretzschmar R.,Wehrli B., Cirpka O.A., Saha G.C., Ashraf Ali M.,Badruzzaman A.B.M. (2010) Arsenic release from paddy soils during monsoon flooding. Nature Geoscience,3, 53–59.
Rose M., Baxter M., Brereton N., Baskaran C. (2010) Dietaryexposure to metals and other elements in the 2006 UK total diet study and some trends over the last 30 years. Food Additives and Contaminants Part A,27, 1380–1404.
Rose M., White S., MaCarthur R., Petch R.G., Holland J., DamantA.P. (2007) Single-laboratory validation of a GC/MS method for the determination of 27 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in oils and fats. Food Additives and Contaminants PartA, 24, 635–651.
Rosenzweig C., Casassa G., Karoly D.J., Imeson A., Liu C., MenzelA.S.R., Rawlins S., Root T.L., Seguin B., Tryjianowski P. (2007) Assessment of observed changes and responses in natural andmanaged systems. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group IIto the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Changeeds Parry M.L., Canziani O.F., PalutikofJ.P., Van Der Linden P.J., Hanson C.E. Cambrige University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 79–131.
Satarug S., Garrett S.H., Sens M.A., Sens D.A. (2010) Cadmium, environmental exposure, and health outcomes. Environmental Health Perspectives,118, 182–190.
Stachel B., Christoph E.H., Gotz R., Herrmann T., Kruger F.,Kuhn T., Lay J., Loffler J., PAPKE O., Reincke H., Schroter-Kermani C., Schwartz R., Steeg E., Stehr D., Uhlig S., UmlaufG. (2006) Contamination of the alluvial plain, feeding-stuffs and foodstuffs with polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) and mercury from the River Elbe in the light of the flood event in August 2002. Science of the Total Environment, 364, 96–112.
Startin J.R., Rose M.D. (2003). In: Dioxins and Health, 2nd Edition eds Arnold Schecter A, Gasiewicz T pp. 89–136, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, USA.
Takizawa Y. (2000) Understanding minamata disease andstrategies to prevent further environmental contamination by methylmercury. Water Science and Technology, 42,139–146.
Tirado M.C., Clarke R., Jaykus L.A., McQuatters-Gollop A., Frank J.M. (2010) Climate change and food safety: a review. Food Research International, 43, 1745–1765.
Turetsky M.R., Harden J.W., Friedli H.R., Flannigan M., Payne N.,Crock J., Radke L. (2006) Wildfires threaten mercury stocks innorthern soils. Geophysical Research Letters, 33, L16403, doi:10.1029/2005GL025595.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2002) Global mercury assessment. Available at http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/report/GMA-report-TOC.htm
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). (1992) FCCC/INFORMAL/84 GE.05-62220 (E) 200705. Available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2009a) Summary results of sediment sampling conducted by the environmental protection agency in response to Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Available at http://www.epa.gov/katrina/testresults/sediments/summary.html
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2009b) Mercury, health effects. Available at http://www.epa.gov/hg/effects.htm
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2009c) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Available at http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/hazard/tsd/pcbs/pubs/about.htm
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2010) Anexposure assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers.Available at http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=210404
US Geological Survey (USGS). (2010) Minerals. Available at http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity
Vannoort R., Thomson B. (2005a).2003/04 New Zealand Total Diet Survey. New Zealand Food Safety Authority, Wellington. Available at http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/science/research-projects/total-diet-survey/reports/full-final-report/nzfsa-total-diet.pdf
Vannoort R., Thomson B. (2005b).Auxiliary Data, 2003/04 NewZealand Total Diet Survey Agricultural Compound Residues,Selected Contaminants and Nutrients. New Zealand FoodSafety Authority, Wellington. Available at http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/science/research-projects/total-diet-survey/reports/full-final-report/8438-nzfsa-back.pdf
World Health Organization (WHO). (2001) Arsenic and arseniccompounds. United Nations Environment Programme, International Labour Organization, World Health Organization. Available at http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc224.htm#1.0
Wilcke W. (2000) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil - a review. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science,163,229–248.
Article Sidebar
Published
Dec 31, 2011
Article Details
Issue
Section
Review Article
