Effects of processing on stability of water- and fat-soluble vitamins, pigments (C-phycocyanin, carotenoids, chlorophylls) and colour characteristics of Spirulina platensis
Main Article Content
Keywords
C-phycocyanin, cyanocobalamin, retinol, spray-drying, non-blanched freezing
Abstract
Spirulina platensis is an important aquatic source of functional components in foods and pharmaceutical products. The main purpose of present research was investigating the effect of processing methods (shade-, sun-, oven-, microwave-, vacuum oven-, freeze- and spray-drying and freezing with and without blanching) on colour properties and important photochemical components (vitamins and pigments) of Spirulina. In dehydrated samples, the spray-dried Spirulina had the highest level of carotenoids and chlorophylls. Due to the protein structure of C-phycocyanin, the lyophilised sample contained the highest C-phycocyanin level. There were significant correlations in pigments content and colour properties (L* a* b* ?E) of processed samples. Thiamine, niacin, pyridoxine, cyanocobalamin and retinol were important water- and fat-soluble vitamins of Spirulina. Generally, spray drying was a suitable method for retarding chlorophylls degradation, carotenoids oxidation and isomerisation, and preserving the highest level of vitamins in Spirulina platensis compared to other drying processes, although, non-blanched freezing was preferred.
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References
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Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), 2007. Official methods of analysis,18th edition. AOAC, Gaithersburg, MD, USA.
Ban, C., Yoon, S., Han, J., Oh Kim, S., Sook Han, J., Lim, S. and Jin Choi, Y., 2016. Effects of freezing rate and terminal freezing temperature on frozen croissant dough quality. LWT – Food Science and Technology 73: 219-225.
Benelhadj, S., Gharsallaoui, A., Degraeve, P., Attia, H. and Ghorbel, D., 2016. Effect of pH on the functional properties of Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis protein isolate. Food Chemistry 194: 1056-1063.
Bengtsson, A., Namutebi, A., Alminger, M.L. and Svanberg, U., 2008. Effects of various traditional processing methods on the all-trans-beta-carotene content of orange-fleshed sweet potato. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 21: 134-143.
Benlloch-Tinoco, M., Kaulmann, A., Corte-Real, J. and Rodrigo, D., Martínez-Navarrete, N., Bohn, T., 2015. Chlorophylls and carotenoids of kiwifruit puree are affected similarly or less by microwave than by conventional heat processing and storage. Food Chemistry 187: 254-262.
Bernhardt, S. and Schlich, E., 2006. Impact of different cooking methods on food quality: Retention of lipophilic vitamins in fresh and frozen vegetables. Journal of Food Engineering 77: 327-333.
Boussiba, S. and Richmond, A.E., 1979. Isolation and characterization of phycocyanins from the blue-green alga Spirulina platensis. Journal of Microbiology 120: 155-159.
Carvalho, L.M., Gomes, P.B., Oliveira, R.L., Pacheco, S., Nutti, M.R., Neves, A.C., Rodrigues Alves Vieira, A.C. and Ramos, S.R.R., 2012. Total carotenoid content, ?-carotene and ?-carotene, of landrace pumpkins (Cucurbita moschata Duch): a preliminary study. Journal of Food Research International 47: 337-340.
Cervantes-Paz, B., Yahia, E.M., Ornelas-Paz, J.J., Victoria-Campos, C.I., Ibarra-Junquera, V., Perez-Martinez, J.D. and Escalante-Minakata, P., 2014. Antioxidant activity and content of chlorophylls and carotenoids in raw and heat-processed jalapeno peppers at intermediate stages of ripening. Food Chemistry 146: 188-196.
Chamorro-Cevallos, G., Garduno-Siciliano, L., Barron, B.L., Madrigal-Bujaidar, E., Cruz-Vega, D.E. and Pages, N., 2008. Chemoprotective effect of Spirulina (Arthrospira) against cyclophosphamide-induced mutagenicity in mice. Food and Chemical Toxicology 46: 567-574.
Ciurzynska, A., Lenart, A. and Greda, K.J., 2014. Effect of pre-treatment conditions on content and activity of water and colour of freeze-dried pumpkin. LWT – Food Science and Technology 59: 1075-1081.
Czarnowska, M. and Gujska, E., 2012. Effect of freezing technology and storage conditions on folate content in selected vegetables. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 67: 401-406.
Dartsch, P.C., 2008. Antioxidant potential of selected Spirulina platensis preparations. Phytotherapy Research22: 627-633.
Deman, J.M., 1999. Principles of food chemistry. Springer, New York, NY, USA.
Desmorieux, H. and Decaen, N., 2005. Convective drying of Spirulinain thin layer. Journal of Food Engineering 66: 497-503.
Doke, J.M., 2005. An improved and efficient method for the extraction of phycocyanin from Spirulina sp. Journal of Food Engineering 1(5): 1556-3758.
Ekinci, R., 2005. The effect of fermentation and drying on the water-soluble vitamin content of tarhana, a traditional Turkish cereal food. Food Chemistry90: 127-132.
Eykelenburg, C.V., 1977. On the morphology and ultrastructure of the cell wall of Spirulina platensis. Journal of Microbiology 43: 89-99.
Fabregas, J. and Herrero, C., 1990. Vitamin content of four marine microalgae. Potential use as source of vitamins in nutrition. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology 5: 259-264.
Fahmy Shabana, E., Gabr, M.A., Ragab Moussa, H., El-Shaer, E.A. and Ismaiel, M.M.S., 2017. Biochemical composition and antioxidant activities of Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis in response to gamma irradiation. Food Chemistry214: 550-555.
Gimeno, E., Castellote, A.I., Lamuela-Raventos, R.M. and De la Torre, M.C., 2000. Rapid determination of vitamin E in vegetable oils by reversedphase high-performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A 881: 251-254.
Glazer, A.N., 1976. Photochemical and photobiological reviews. In: Smith, K.C. (ed.) Phycocyanins:structure and function. Plenum Press, New York, NY, USA, pp. 71-116.
Grabowski, J.A., Truong, V.D. and Daubert, C.R., 2008. Nutritional and rheological characterization of spray dried sweetpotato powder. LWT – Food Science and Technology 41: 206-216.
Heudi, O., Kilinc, T., Fontannaz, P. and Marley, E., 2006. Determination of vitamin B12 in food products and in premixes by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography and immunoaffinity extraction. Journal of Chromatography A1101: 63-68.
Hosseini, H., Mahmoudzadeh, M., Rezaei, M., Mahmoudzadeh, L., Khaksar, R., Karimian Khosroshahi, N. and Babakhani, A., 2014. Effect of different cooking methods on minerals, vitamins and nutritional quality indices of kutum roach (Rutilus frisii kutum). Food Chemistry 148: 86-91.
Jin, P., Xia, L., Li, Z., Che, N., Zou, D. and Hu, X., 2012. Rapid determination of thiamine, riboflavin, niacinamide, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, folic acid and ascorbic acid in vitamins with minerals tablets by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 70: 151-157.
Kadakal, C., Ekinci, R. and Yapar, A., 2007. The effect of cooking and drying on the water-soluble vitamins content of bulgur. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 13: 349-354.
Kaewsuksaeng, S., Tatmalaa, N., Srilaong, V. and Pongprasert, N., 2015. Postharvest heat treatment delays chlorophyll degradation and maintains quality in Thai lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle cv. Paan) fruit. Journal of Postharvest Biology and Technology 100: 1-7.
Klejdus, B., Petrlova, J., Potesil, D., Adam, V., Mikelova, R., Vacek, J., Kizek, R. and Kuban, V., 2004. Simultaneous determination of water- and fat-soluble vitamins in pharmaceutical preparations by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection. Analytica Chimica Acta520: 57-67.
Kumar, S.S., Manoj, P., Shetty, N.P. and Giridhar, P., 2014. Effect of different drying methods on chlorophyll, ascorbic acid and antioxidant compounds retention of leaves of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Journal of Science Food and Agriculture 95: 1812-1820.
Lebiedzinska, A., Marszall, M.L., Kuta, J. and Szefer, P., 2007. Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography method with coulometric electrochemical and ultraviolet detection for the quantification of vitamins B1 (thiamine), B6 (pyridoxamine, pyridoxal and pyridoxine) and B12 in animal and plant foods. Journal of Chromatography A1173: 71-80.
Malheiro, R., Oliveira, I., Vilas-Boas, M., Falcao, S., Bento, A. and Pereira, J.A., 2009. Effect of microwave heating with different exposure times on physical and chemical parameters of olive oil. Food and Chemical Toxicology 47: 92-97.
Mazzeo, T., Paciulli, M., Chiavaro, E., Visconti, A., Fogliano, V., Ganino, T. and Pellegrini, N., 2015. Impact of the industrial freezing process on selected vegetables – Part II. Colour and bioactive compounds. Journal of Food Research International 75: 89-97.
Michalska, A., Wojdylo, A., Lysiak, G.P., Lech, K. and Figiel, A., 2017. Functional relationships between phytochemicals and drying conditions during the processing of blackcurrant pomace into powders. Advance Powder Technology 28: 1340-1348.
Mulokozi, G. and Svanberg, U., 2003. Effect of traditional open sun-drying and solar cabinet drying on carotene content and vitamin A activity of green leafy vegetables. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 58: 1-15.
Negi, P.S. and Roy, S.K., 2000. Effect of blanching and drying methods on ?-carotene, ascorbic acid and chlorophyll retention of leafy vegetables. LWT – Food Science and Technology33: 295-298.
Oliveira, E.G., Rosa, G.S., Moraes, M.A. and Pinto, L.A., 2009. Characterization of thin layer drying of Spirulina platensis utilizing perpendicular air flow. Journal of Bioresource Technology 100: 1297-1303.
Ottaway, P.B., 1993. The technology of vitamins in food. In: Ottaway, P.B. (ed.) Stability of vitamins in food. Springer, London, UK, pp. 90-113.
Rawson, A., Tiwari, B.K., Tuohy, M.G., Odonnell, C.P. and Brunton, N., 2011. Effect of ultrasound and blanching pretreatments on polyacetylene and carotenoid content of hot air and freeze dried carrot discs. Journal of Ultrasonics Sonochemistry18: 1172-1179.
Rice, E.E. and Robinson, H.E., 1944. Nutritive value of canned and dehydrated meat and meat products. American Journal of Public Health and the Nation’s Health 34: 587-592.
Roca, M., Chen, K. and Perez-Galvez,A., 2016. Chlorophylls. In: Carle, R. and Schweiggert, R. (eds.) Handbook on natural pigments in food and beverages. Elsevier, New York, NY, USA, pp. 125-158.
Saini, R.K., Shetty, N.P., Prakash, M. and Giridhar, P., 2014. Effect of dehydration methods on retention of carotenoids, tocopherols, ascorbic acid and antioxidant activity in Moringa oleifera leaves and preparation of a RTE product. Journal of Food Science and Technology 51: 2176-2182.
Salo-Vaananen, P., Ollilainen, V., Mattila, P., Lehikoinen, K., Salmela-Molsa, E. and Piironen, V., 2000. Simultaneous HPLC analysis of fat-soluble vitamins in selected animal products after small-scale extraction. Food Chemistry 71: 535-543.
Sarada, R., Pillai, M.G. and Ravishankar, G.A., 1999. Phycocyanin from Spirulina sp: influence of processing of biomass on phycocyanin yield, analysis of efficacy of extraction methods and stability studies on phycocyanin. Process Biochemistry 34: 795-801.
Shishir, M.R., Taip, F.S., Aziz, N.A. and Talib, R.A., 2014. Physical properties of spray-dried pink guava (Psidium guajava) powder. Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 2: 74-81.
Silveira, C.M., Moreira, A.V., Martino, H.S., Gomide, R.S., Pinheiro, S.S. and Della Lucia, C.M., Pinheiro, H.M., 2016. Effect of cooking methods on the stability of thiamin and folic acid in fortified rice. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 68: 179-187.
Simpson, K.L., 1985. Chemical changes in food during processing. In: Richardson, T. and Finley, J.W. (eds.) Chemical changes in natural food pigments. Springer, New York, NY, USA, pp. 409-441.
Slupski, J., 2012. Effect of freezing and canning on the thiamine and riboflavin content in immature seeds of five cultivars of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). International Journal of Refrigeration 35: 890-896.
Wan, D., Wu, Q. and Kuca, K., 2016. Spirulina.In: Gupta, R.C. (ed.) Nutraceuticals: efficacy, safety and toxicity. Elsevier, New York, NY, USA, pp. 569-583.
Yahia, E.M. and Ornelas-Paz, J.J., 2010. Chemistry, stability, and biological actions of carotenoids. In: Rosa, L.A., Alvarez-Parrilla, E. and Gonzalez-Aguilar, G.A. (eds.) Fruit and vegetable phytochemicals: chemistry, nutritional value, and stability. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, NJ, USA, pp. 177-222.
Zafra-Gomez, A., Garballo, A., Morales, J.C. and Garcia-Ayuso, L.E., 2006. Simultaneous determination of eight water-soluble vitamins in supplemented foods by liquid chromatography. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54: 4531-4536.
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), 2007. Official methods of analysis,18th edition. AOAC, Gaithersburg, MD, USA.
Ban, C., Yoon, S., Han, J., Oh Kim, S., Sook Han, J., Lim, S. and Jin Choi, Y., 2016. Effects of freezing rate and terminal freezing temperature on frozen croissant dough quality. LWT – Food Science and Technology 73: 219-225.
Benelhadj, S., Gharsallaoui, A., Degraeve, P., Attia, H. and Ghorbel, D., 2016. Effect of pH on the functional properties of Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis protein isolate. Food Chemistry 194: 1056-1063.
Bengtsson, A., Namutebi, A., Alminger, M.L. and Svanberg, U., 2008. Effects of various traditional processing methods on the all-trans-beta-carotene content of orange-fleshed sweet potato. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 21: 134-143.
Benlloch-Tinoco, M., Kaulmann, A., Corte-Real, J. and Rodrigo, D., Martínez-Navarrete, N., Bohn, T., 2015. Chlorophylls and carotenoids of kiwifruit puree are affected similarly or less by microwave than by conventional heat processing and storage. Food Chemistry 187: 254-262.
Bernhardt, S. and Schlich, E., 2006. Impact of different cooking methods on food quality: Retention of lipophilic vitamins in fresh and frozen vegetables. Journal of Food Engineering 77: 327-333.
Boussiba, S. and Richmond, A.E., 1979. Isolation and characterization of phycocyanins from the blue-green alga Spirulina platensis. Journal of Microbiology 120: 155-159.
Carvalho, L.M., Gomes, P.B., Oliveira, R.L., Pacheco, S., Nutti, M.R., Neves, A.C., Rodrigues Alves Vieira, A.C. and Ramos, S.R.R., 2012. Total carotenoid content, ?-carotene and ?-carotene, of landrace pumpkins (Cucurbita moschata Duch): a preliminary study. Journal of Food Research International 47: 337-340.
Cervantes-Paz, B., Yahia, E.M., Ornelas-Paz, J.J., Victoria-Campos, C.I., Ibarra-Junquera, V., Perez-Martinez, J.D. and Escalante-Minakata, P., 2014. Antioxidant activity and content of chlorophylls and carotenoids in raw and heat-processed jalapeno peppers at intermediate stages of ripening. Food Chemistry 146: 188-196.
Chamorro-Cevallos, G., Garduno-Siciliano, L., Barron, B.L., Madrigal-Bujaidar, E., Cruz-Vega, D.E. and Pages, N., 2008. Chemoprotective effect of Spirulina (Arthrospira) against cyclophosphamide-induced mutagenicity in mice. Food and Chemical Toxicology 46: 567-574.
Ciurzynska, A., Lenart, A. and Greda, K.J., 2014. Effect of pre-treatment conditions on content and activity of water and colour of freeze-dried pumpkin. LWT – Food Science and Technology 59: 1075-1081.
Czarnowska, M. and Gujska, E., 2012. Effect of freezing technology and storage conditions on folate content in selected vegetables. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 67: 401-406.
Dartsch, P.C., 2008. Antioxidant potential of selected Spirulina platensis preparations. Phytotherapy Research22: 627-633.
Deman, J.M., 1999. Principles of food chemistry. Springer, New York, NY, USA.
Desmorieux, H. and Decaen, N., 2005. Convective drying of Spirulinain thin layer. Journal of Food Engineering 66: 497-503.
Doke, J.M., 2005. An improved and efficient method for the extraction of phycocyanin from Spirulina sp. Journal of Food Engineering 1(5): 1556-3758.
Ekinci, R., 2005. The effect of fermentation and drying on the water-soluble vitamin content of tarhana, a traditional Turkish cereal food. Food Chemistry90: 127-132.
Eykelenburg, C.V., 1977. On the morphology and ultrastructure of the cell wall of Spirulina platensis. Journal of Microbiology 43: 89-99.
Fabregas, J. and Herrero, C., 1990. Vitamin content of four marine microalgae. Potential use as source of vitamins in nutrition. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology 5: 259-264.
Fahmy Shabana, E., Gabr, M.A., Ragab Moussa, H., El-Shaer, E.A. and Ismaiel, M.M.S., 2017. Biochemical composition and antioxidant activities of Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis in response to gamma irradiation. Food Chemistry214: 550-555.
Gimeno, E., Castellote, A.I., Lamuela-Raventos, R.M. and De la Torre, M.C., 2000. Rapid determination of vitamin E in vegetable oils by reversedphase high-performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Chromatography A 881: 251-254.
Glazer, A.N., 1976. Photochemical and photobiological reviews. In: Smith, K.C. (ed.) Phycocyanins:structure and function. Plenum Press, New York, NY, USA, pp. 71-116.
Grabowski, J.A., Truong, V.D. and Daubert, C.R., 2008. Nutritional and rheological characterization of spray dried sweetpotato powder. LWT – Food Science and Technology 41: 206-216.
Heudi, O., Kilinc, T., Fontannaz, P. and Marley, E., 2006. Determination of vitamin B12 in food products and in premixes by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography and immunoaffinity extraction. Journal of Chromatography A1101: 63-68.
Hosseini, H., Mahmoudzadeh, M., Rezaei, M., Mahmoudzadeh, L., Khaksar, R., Karimian Khosroshahi, N. and Babakhani, A., 2014. Effect of different cooking methods on minerals, vitamins and nutritional quality indices of kutum roach (Rutilus frisii kutum). Food Chemistry 148: 86-91.
Jin, P., Xia, L., Li, Z., Che, N., Zou, D. and Hu, X., 2012. Rapid determination of thiamine, riboflavin, niacinamide, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, folic acid and ascorbic acid in vitamins with minerals tablets by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 70: 151-157.
Kadakal, C., Ekinci, R. and Yapar, A., 2007. The effect of cooking and drying on the water-soluble vitamins content of bulgur. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 13: 349-354.
Kaewsuksaeng, S., Tatmalaa, N., Srilaong, V. and Pongprasert, N., 2015. Postharvest heat treatment delays chlorophyll degradation and maintains quality in Thai lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle cv. Paan) fruit. Journal of Postharvest Biology and Technology 100: 1-7.
Klejdus, B., Petrlova, J., Potesil, D., Adam, V., Mikelova, R., Vacek, J., Kizek, R. and Kuban, V., 2004. Simultaneous determination of water- and fat-soluble vitamins in pharmaceutical preparations by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection. Analytica Chimica Acta520: 57-67.
Kumar, S.S., Manoj, P., Shetty, N.P. and Giridhar, P., 2014. Effect of different drying methods on chlorophyll, ascorbic acid and antioxidant compounds retention of leaves of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Journal of Science Food and Agriculture 95: 1812-1820.
Lebiedzinska, A., Marszall, M.L., Kuta, J. and Szefer, P., 2007. Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography method with coulometric electrochemical and ultraviolet detection for the quantification of vitamins B1 (thiamine), B6 (pyridoxamine, pyridoxal and pyridoxine) and B12 in animal and plant foods. Journal of Chromatography A1173: 71-80.
Malheiro, R., Oliveira, I., Vilas-Boas, M., Falcao, S., Bento, A. and Pereira, J.A., 2009. Effect of microwave heating with different exposure times on physical and chemical parameters of olive oil. Food and Chemical Toxicology 47: 92-97.
Mazzeo, T., Paciulli, M., Chiavaro, E., Visconti, A., Fogliano, V., Ganino, T. and Pellegrini, N., 2015. Impact of the industrial freezing process on selected vegetables – Part II. Colour and bioactive compounds. Journal of Food Research International 75: 89-97.
Michalska, A., Wojdylo, A., Lysiak, G.P., Lech, K. and Figiel, A., 2017. Functional relationships between phytochemicals and drying conditions during the processing of blackcurrant pomace into powders. Advance Powder Technology 28: 1340-1348.
Mulokozi, G. and Svanberg, U., 2003. Effect of traditional open sun-drying and solar cabinet drying on carotene content and vitamin A activity of green leafy vegetables. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 58: 1-15.
Negi, P.S. and Roy, S.K., 2000. Effect of blanching and drying methods on ?-carotene, ascorbic acid and chlorophyll retention of leafy vegetables. LWT – Food Science and Technology33: 295-298.
Oliveira, E.G., Rosa, G.S., Moraes, M.A. and Pinto, L.A., 2009. Characterization of thin layer drying of Spirulina platensis utilizing perpendicular air flow. Journal of Bioresource Technology 100: 1297-1303.
Ottaway, P.B., 1993. The technology of vitamins in food. In: Ottaway, P.B. (ed.) Stability of vitamins in food. Springer, London, UK, pp. 90-113.
Rawson, A., Tiwari, B.K., Tuohy, M.G., Odonnell, C.P. and Brunton, N., 2011. Effect of ultrasound and blanching pretreatments on polyacetylene and carotenoid content of hot air and freeze dried carrot discs. Journal of Ultrasonics Sonochemistry18: 1172-1179.
Rice, E.E. and Robinson, H.E., 1944. Nutritive value of canned and dehydrated meat and meat products. American Journal of Public Health and the Nation’s Health 34: 587-592.
Roca, M., Chen, K. and Perez-Galvez,A., 2016. Chlorophylls. In: Carle, R. and Schweiggert, R. (eds.) Handbook on natural pigments in food and beverages. Elsevier, New York, NY, USA, pp. 125-158.
Saini, R.K., Shetty, N.P., Prakash, M. and Giridhar, P., 2014. Effect of dehydration methods on retention of carotenoids, tocopherols, ascorbic acid and antioxidant activity in Moringa oleifera leaves and preparation of a RTE product. Journal of Food Science and Technology 51: 2176-2182.
Salo-Vaananen, P., Ollilainen, V., Mattila, P., Lehikoinen, K., Salmela-Molsa, E. and Piironen, V., 2000. Simultaneous HPLC analysis of fat-soluble vitamins in selected animal products after small-scale extraction. Food Chemistry 71: 535-543.
Sarada, R., Pillai, M.G. and Ravishankar, G.A., 1999. Phycocyanin from Spirulina sp: influence of processing of biomass on phycocyanin yield, analysis of efficacy of extraction methods and stability studies on phycocyanin. Process Biochemistry 34: 795-801.
Shishir, M.R., Taip, F.S., Aziz, N.A. and Talib, R.A., 2014. Physical properties of spray-dried pink guava (Psidium guajava) powder. Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 2: 74-81.
Silveira, C.M., Moreira, A.V., Martino, H.S., Gomide, R.S., Pinheiro, S.S. and Della Lucia, C.M., Pinheiro, H.M., 2016. Effect of cooking methods on the stability of thiamin and folic acid in fortified rice. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 68: 179-187.
Simpson, K.L., 1985. Chemical changes in food during processing. In: Richardson, T. and Finley, J.W. (eds.) Chemical changes in natural food pigments. Springer, New York, NY, USA, pp. 409-441.
Slupski, J., 2012. Effect of freezing and canning on the thiamine and riboflavin content in immature seeds of five cultivars of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). International Journal of Refrigeration 35: 890-896.
Wan, D., Wu, Q. and Kuca, K., 2016. Spirulina.In: Gupta, R.C. (ed.) Nutraceuticals: efficacy, safety and toxicity. Elsevier, New York, NY, USA, pp. 569-583.
Yahia, E.M. and Ornelas-Paz, J.J., 2010. Chemistry, stability, and biological actions of carotenoids. In: Rosa, L.A., Alvarez-Parrilla, E. and Gonzalez-Aguilar, G.A. (eds.) Fruit and vegetable phytochemicals: chemistry, nutritional value, and stability. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, NJ, USA, pp. 177-222.
Zafra-Gomez, A., Garballo, A., Morales, J.C. and Garcia-Ayuso, L.E., 2006. Simultaneous determination of eight water-soluble vitamins in supplemented foods by liquid chromatography. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54: 4531-4536.