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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Enhancing biscuits with muskmelon seed flour: a study of physicochemical, textural, and nutritional characteristics
Najla Al Masoud1†*, Syed Ali Hassan2†, Taghrid S. Alomar1, Waqar Mujahid2, Rana Muhammad Aadil1,2*
1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia;
2National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
†These authors contributed equally to this work.
Abstract
The baking industry is continuously innovating to develop new product formulations that appeal to consumers through both taste and enhanced nutritional value. Biscuits, one of the most popular bakery products globally, serve as an ideal medium for the fortification of essential nutrients. Muskmelon seeds, rich in protein, oil, vitamins, minerals, and amino acids, offer a natural source for the fortification of various food products. This research focuses on incorporating muskmelon seed flour into biscuit formulations to enhance protein, dietary fiber, mineral, and phytochemical content while preserving textural quality. Five formulations were tested, with T0 (control) containing 100% wheat flour, T1 containing 95% wheat flour and 5% muskmelon seed flour, T2 containing 90% wheat flour and 10% muskmelon seed flour, T3 containing 85% wheat flour and 15% muskmelon seed flour, and T4 containing 80% wheat flour and 20% muskmelon seed flour. The effect of substituting wheat flour with muskmelon seed flour on biscuit development was assessed by examining physical, proximate, textural, nutritional, and sensory characteristics. The inclusion of muskmelon seed flour significantly increased biscuit thickness (from 53.66 ± 0.68 mm to 73.00 ± 0.36 mm) and hardness (from 18.57 ± 0.03% to 47.61 ± 0.02%) to maintain its proper shape and texture while also enhancing crude protein (from 5.69 ± 0.07% to 16.41 ± 0.08%), ash (1.13 ± 0.01% to 1.70 ± 0.05%), and dietary fiber content (from 1.58 ± 0.03% to 1.88 ± 0.04%). Additionally, the substitution improved total phenolic content (TPC, from 85.52 ± 0.05 to 210.54 ± 0.04 mg GAE/mL), total flavonoid content (TFC, from 54.84 ± 0.09 to 142.28 ± 0.03 mg CE/g), and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) inhibition (from 48.63 ± 0.04% to 65.54 ± 0.05%). Among various treatments, T2, which incorporated 10% muskmelon seed flour, was the most acceptable treatment. Further research is recommended to assess sensory characteristics more precisely using trained panelists.
Key words: food waste management, functional foods, dietary fiber, muskmelon seeds, biscuits
*Corresponding Authors: Najla Al Masoud and Rana Muhammad Aadil, Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84427, Riyadh 11671, Saudi Arabia. Emails: [email protected]; [email protected]
Received: 8 June 2024: Accepted: 21 September 2024; Published: 14 October 2024
© 2024 Codon Publications
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0). License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
Introduction
The fruit and vegetable industry generates considerable waste throughout production, preparation, and consumption processes, including both solid and liquid by-products. These often-ignored waste materials represent a valuable opportunity for transformation into a range of useful products with diverse applications (Ahmad et al., 2023a; Anjum et al., 2023; Bangulzai et al., 2022; Dohouonan et al., 2022; Fahim et al., 2022; Khan et al., 2022; Mehnaz et al., 2023; Mehwish Ahmad et al., 2023). A major source of this waste stream is commonly discarded peels and seeds that present significant environmental challenges because of their degradation. However, these waste materials are not only problematic but also contain bioactive compounds of substantial importance. These valuable compounds have potential applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries (Derar et al., 2023; Elihasridas et al., 2023; Ghany et al., 2023; Mohamed et al., 2023; Munir et al., 2023; Widowati et al., 2022). By extracting these compounds from waste materials, industries can produce functional ingredients, thereby optimizing resource utilization and reducing environmental impact (Ahmad et al., 2023b; Devi et al., 2019; Iozon et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2022).
The seeds of bitter melons, watermelons, cucumbers, pumpkin, and other Cucurbit seeds have a broad range of functional characteristics. These seeds are a good source of protein. They are enriched with omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids that are considered as healthy fats. Cucurbit seeds have high contents of dietary fiber and are beneficial for our digestive tract and help to manage the blood glucose levels. They contain zinc, phosphorus, iron, and magnesium as essential minerals and a good source of vitamin E and B-complex (Polyzos et al., 2023). They contain phenolic acids, carotenoids, and related antioxidants that protect our cells against oxidative stress and lower blood cholesterol levels to improve our heart health (Gade et al., 2022).
Muskmelon is also a member of Cucurbitaceae family and is recognized for its pleasant aroma, refreshing flavor, and sweet pulp. These appealing attributes depends upon the variety and cultivar of the muskmelons. The Asian varieties are highly preferred for the production of beverages, fruit cocktails, nectars, and juices (Devi and Badwaik, 2022). The rind of muskmelon, which is the primary waste product, has been utilized in the extraction of pectin and for the preparation of preserves and pickles. The other waste product of muskmelon is muskmelon seeds that are a rich source of protein and bioactive compounds responsible for several medicinal and nutraceutical properties. The oil in muskmelon seeds normally ranged from 37 to 45% and the protein content ranged from 25 to 37% (Zhang et al., 2022). In everyday practices, the seeds of muskmelon fruits are considered as waste because people are unaware of their nutritional and health effects (Devi and Badwaik, 2022).
To bring innovation in the food industrial sector, it is necessary to adopt technical advancements in the development of novel food products. The 3 important points that are usually taken into account regarding the development of an innovative food product are: convenience of the food product, healthy dietary choices, and sustainable food systems (Horvat et al., 2019).
To fulfill the demands of health-conscious consumers, it is necessary to incorporate functional components to develop new food recipes. In this way, food manufacturers can fulfill the expectations of such people who prefer consumer health and wellness in the choice of their dietary patterns. These days, the food industry sector not only focus the nutritional worth of the food products but also the environmental sustainability to address the global challenges (Zhang et al., 2023). One such avenue is the incorporation of fiber into the bakery products like cakes, bread, muffins, biscuits, and other snacks. In white bread, the incorporation of dietary fiber brings substantial health benefits on a worldwide scale. These changes address the environmental sustainability challenges, promote consumer well-being, and fulfill the nutritional deficiencies (Ciurzyńska et al., 2019; Królak et al., 2022).
Previous investigations on the relevant topics have focused the addition of seeds and kernels, such as sesame seeds, fenugreek seeds, chia seeds, walnuts, pistachio nuts, and almonds to develop new food product recipes but these seeds are not considered as waste products. This research has explored the utilization of muskmelon seeds that are usually discarded as waste products. In this research, the impact of muskmelon seed flour on the nutritional, textural, and physicochemical properties of biscuits have been investigated with an aim to evaluate the extent to which wheat flour can be replaced with the flour of muskmelon seeds to get optimal results in terms of nutritional composition, texture, and overall acceptability.
Materials and Methods
Procurement of raw materials
The necessary ingredients for baking like wheat flour, sugar, eggs, sunflower oil, and baking powder were purchased from local grocery stores located in the region of Faisalabad, Pakistan. The muskmelon seeds were obtained from fresh and fully ripened muskmelons of the “Arka Rajhans” cultivar. These seeds were subsequently washed, cleaned, and sun-dried. Following this, the seeds were crunched into flour and stored in an airtight plastic container.
Chemicals and reagents
All chemicals and reagents, such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4), potassium sulfate, copper sulfate, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution, boric acid solution, hydrochloric acid (HCl), bromocresol green and methyl red as indicators, Folin–Ciocalteu reagent, sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), gallic acid, ethanol, methanol, aluminum chloride (AlCl3), potassium acetate (CH3COOK), quercetin, catechin, ascorbic acid, 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) reagent, and distilled water, were procured from a reputable chemical supply store located in Faisalabad District, Pakistan.
Preparation of biscuits
The standard recipe comprised 250 g of wheat flour, 125 g of sugar, 135 g of sunflower oil, 8 g of baking powder, and 1 egg. Initially, the oil and egg were combined in a mixer to achieve a creamy texture. Following this, all other ingredients were added, and mixing continued for approximately 2 min. The resulting dough was removed from the mixer bowl, cut, and shaped into biscuits. The biscuits were then baked in an electric oven at 180°C for 12 min, adhering to the general biscuit-making procedure outlined by the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC, 2000). Five treatments were prepared: T0 (100% wheat flour), T1 (5% replacement of wheat flour with muskmelon seed flour), T2 (10% replacement), T3 (15% replacement), and T4 (20% replacement). These treatments were designed to assess the effects of substituting wheat flour with muskmelon seed flour at varying levels on the physicochemical, textural, and nutritional properties of biscuits.
Physical analysis of biscuits
The 6 biscuits were placed edge to edge and then Vernier caliper with 0.01 mm accuracy was used to determine the diameter of biscuits. The average diameter in mm was calculated by dividing the value by 6 for each biscuit sample under study. In the same way, 6 biscuits were stacked upon each other to determine their mean thickness in mm after dividing the measured thickness by 6. After that, the diameter of biscuits was divided by their thickness to obtain spread ratio (Man et al., 2021).
Color analysis
For color analysis, a colorimeter (SCM: SCP-60, Pakistan) was used to determine the L*, a*, and b* values. The L* value represents the luminosity or brightness of the sample ranging from 0 (dull or dark) to 100 (bright or white). The a* value indicates the redness or greenness of the sample color in which positive values show redness and negative values show the green end of the color spectrum. Similarly, the b* value shows the yellowness or blueness of the sample color in which positive values reflect the yellow color while negative values reflect the blue color (Jukić et al., 2019).
Texture analysis
In texture analysis, the hardness and cohesiveness of the biscuits’ matrix were determined by using a CT3 Texture Analyzer (Brookfield Engineering Labs, Middleboro, MA, USA). The analyzer was based on a 6 mm cylindrical probe (TA41) and a 10 kg of load cell. A compression test was performed on all the samples under study by following a trigger load of 5 g, a target distance of 5 mm, and post-test speeds of 3 mm/s. These standards gave reliable measurement of the textural properties for biscuits (Man et al., 2021).
Proximate composition analysis
The proximate compositions of the muskmelon seeds and muskmelon seeds fortified biscuits were analyzed by following the protocols described in the methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2016). The control biscuits (without addition of muskmelon seed flour) and those with incorporation of muskmelon seed flour were evaluated for moisture, ash, fat, and fiber contents. The protein content was determined using the Kjeldahl method, with a nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 5.7. Additionally, the total carbohydrate content (%) was calculated using Equation (1):
Total carbohydrates (%) = 100 – [moisture (%) + ash (%) + protein (%) + oil (%) + fiber (%)] (1)
Antioxidant analysis
Total phenolic content (TPC)
For TPC, 1 g of the biscuit sample was treated 3 times with 85:15 v/v MeOH (100 mL of acidified methanol) by continuous stirring and then subjected to the Folin-Ciocalteu method. Briefly, in a 100 mL volumetric flask, 5 mL of Folin Ciocalteu’s reagent was combined with 100 mL of methanolic extract. Then 5 mL of sodium carbonate solution (7.5%) was added, and the flask was filled up to the mark of 100 mL with distilled water. The final mixture was allowed to stand in the dark for about 90 minutes and then absorbance was measured at 760 nm (1700 UV/VIS spectrophotometer) (Chiș et al., 2018).
Total flavonoid content (TFC)
For TFC, the aluminum chloride (AlCl3) method was used and the results were expressed as milligrams of catechin equivalents (CE) per gram of dry weight (DW) of the sample (Jiang et al., 2021).
DPPH Inhibition
Spectrophotometer and the DPPH method was used to assess the radical scavenging activity. 3.9 mL of a DPPH solution was mixed with 0.1 mL of phenolic extracts and incubated at room temperature for 30 min. Then the absorbance was measured at 515 nm using a 1700 UV/VIS spectrophotometer in which methanol was run as blank. A negative control was also prepared by combining 3.9 mL of DPPH solution with 0.1 mL of methanol (Jiang et al., 2021). The radical scavenging activity was calculated using Equation (2):
Microstructural analysis by scanning electron miscroscopy (SEM)
To determine the morphology and microstructural properties of the biscuits, scanning eletron microscopy was used at an operating voltage of 8 kV. The samples were cut into rectangular pieces and then subjected to an ion sputter coater for gold coating (Jiang et al., 2021).
Fourier transform-infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy
To identify the stretching vibrations due to functional groups and spectral changes, FTIR spectroscopy was employed using a Nicolet iS 10 FTIR spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA). The analysis was performed with the transmittance range of 4000 to 500 cm–¹ with a resolution of 4 cm–¹ (Kumar et al., 2018).
Sensory evaluation of biscuits
In the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, 50 students aged from 20-25 years were participated in the sensory evaluation of the biscuits as untrained panelists. The panelists had prior experience in sensory evaluation of the food products, but an additional 1-hour discussion meeting was held to again tell them about the rating scale used for sensory assessment of the biscuits. Using a 9-point scale, where 9 signified ‘like extremely’ and 1 denoted ‘dislike extremely,’ the students assessed aroma, sweetness, crunchiness, oiliness, and overall acceptability of biscuit samples (Klunklin and Savage, 2018).
Statistical analysis
All values were recorded in triplicate and expressed as mean ± standard deviation. The results were statistically analyzed using a one-way ANOVA under a completely randomized design (CRD) with significance levels set at P ≤ 0.05 for significant differences and P ≤ 0.01 for highly significant differences, using the Statistix 8.1 software. Pair-wise comparisons were conducted using post hoc Tukey’s test (Montgomery, 2017).
Results and Discussion
Physical analysis
The fortification of muskmelon seed flour had a significant (P ≤ 0.05) impact on the diameter, thickness, and spread ratio of biscuits. The results indicated that the spread ratio of muskmelon seeds-fortified biscuits significantly decreased (P ≤ 0.05), while thickness was significantly increased (P ≤ 0.05) by increasing the amount of muskmelon seed flour in the recipe as shown in Table 1. The possible reduction in spread ratio might be associated with increased dietary fiber and protein content and the increased level of muskmelon seed flour, which is comprehended to have more water-binding capacity (Kaur et al., 2019). During mixing, if more water is present, then it dissolves more sugar in dough. The initial viscosity of the dough is decreased, and biscuits spread faster during the process of baking. The flour components having capacity to absorb more quantity of water reduce the solubility of sugar in dough. As a result, the initial viscosity of dough increases, and the cookies spread less during the process of baking (Kaur et al., 2019). Our results align with that of Wani et al. (2012), in which the cookies were made by including protein isolate of watermelon seeds in wheat flour, resulting in a lower spread ratio.
Table 1. Proximate composition analysis of muskmelon seeds.
| Proximate composition | Moisture (%) | Ash (%) | Crude protein (%) | Crude fat (%) | Carbohydrates (%) | Crude fiber (%) | pH | Water activity |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Muskmelon seeds | 2.60 ± 0.03 | 4.58 ± 0.010 | 19.26 ± 0.020 | 42.95 ± 0.010 | 12.68 ± 0.026 | 15.79 ± 0.020 | 6.53 ± 0.020 | 0.363 ± 0.002 |
All values were taken in triplicate and expressed as mean ± standard deviation; P≤ 0.05.
As muskmelon seed flour level is increased, the thickness of biscuits is also increased. It is due to influence of protein (gluten) present in the dough. The expansion of gluten is not restricted during the baking process of biscuits. An inverse correlation was observed between gluten content and diameter of biscuits. During the process of baking, gluten present in the dough formed a web in biscuits and the biscuits underwent an apparent glass transition, gained mobility that allowed it to integrate and forming a web. The continuous formation of web increased the viscosity of dough and stopped the flow of biscuits (Miller et al., 1997).
Statistical analysis revealed that the diameter of biscuits had significantly (P ≤ 0.05) decreased by increasing the amount of muskmelon seed flour in the recipe (Table 2). The decrease in diameter could be attributed to increased protein content in the flour blend, as reported by Saha et al. (2011). These results are in accordance with the findings of Hooda and Jood (2005). Ullah et al. (2016) found that the diameter of biscuits decreased with increase in alfalfa seed flour in refined wheat flour-based biscuits.
Table 2. Physical and texture analyses of muskmelon seeds-fortified biscuits.
| Treatments | Diameter (mm) | Thickness (mm) | Spread ratio | Hardness (N) | Cohesiveness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| T0 | 457.33 ± 0.45a | 53.66 ± 0.68c | 8.54 ± 0.43a | 18.57 ± 0.03e | 0.04 ± 0.01d |
| T1 | 453.33 ± 0.31a,b | 61.00 ± 0.42b,c | 7.45 ± 0.51b | 21.70 ± 0.05d | 0.06 ± 0.03c |
| T2 | 448.00 ± 0.95a,b,c | 66.33 ± 0.81a,b | 6.77 ± 0.61b,c | 35.10 ± 0.09c | 0.05 ± 0.01b |
| T3 | 443.00 ± 0.26b,c | 71.33 ± 0.52a | 6.23 ± 0.38c | 41.18 ± 0.01b | 0.07 ± 0.04b |
| T4 | 440.67 ± 0.58c | 73.00 ± 0.36a | 6.04 ± 0.49c | 47.61 ± 0.02a | 0.09 ± 0.01a |
T0 = 100% wheat flour, T1 = 95% wheat flour and 5% muskmelon seed flour, T2 = 90% wheat flour and 10% muskmelon seed flour, T3 = 85% wheat flour and 15% muskmelon seed flour, and T4 = 80% wheat flour and 20% muskmelon seed flour.
All values were taken in triplicate and expressed as mean ± standard deviation. The values indicated by the same superscripted letters in the same column do not differ significantly from each other; P ≤ 0.05.
Color analysis
The amount of muskmelon seed flour added to biscuits significantly (P ≤ 0.05) affects their color. Specifically, the values representing lightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*) of biscuits decreased by increasing the incorporated amount of muskmelon seed flour, as shown in Table 3. Change in the color of biscuits is linked to the Maillard reaction, reducing sugars that react with the amino groups of proteins to form glycosylamines. These glycosylamines then undergo further chemical changes to become Amadori compounds. The Amadori compounds subsequently break down into various intermediate substances, ultimately forming brown pigments called melanoidins. These melanoidins are responsible for the characteristic brown color of baked goods (Olombrada et al., 2024). When adding muskmelon seed flour to biscuit dough, it increases the overall protein content, compared to the biscuits made solely with wheat flour (the control). This increased content of protein favored the Maillard reaction which resulted in lowering of L*, a*, and b* values and the biscuits became darker in color (Brigante et al., 2022). Our findings are consistent with those of Zhang et al. (2023), who observed a similar reduction in color values in bread crust when the amount of muskmelon seed residues was increased. Thus, the incorporation of muskmelon seed flour increased the nutritional worth of the biscuits by increasing their protein content and affected their color due to occurrence of complex biochemical reactions.
Table 3. Color and proximate analyses of muskmelon seeds-fortified biscuits.
| Treatments | Color | Moisture (%) | Ash (%) | Crude protein (%) | Carbohydrate (%) | Crude fat (%) | Crude fiber (%) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| L* | a* | b* | |||||||
| T0 | 60.54 ± 0.21a | 12.35 ± 0.11a | 31.21 ± 0.07a | 0.43 ± 0.01d | 1.13 ± 0.01e | 5.69 ± 0.07e | 76.37 ± 0.07a | 33.18 ± 0.06e | 1.58 ± 0.03d |
| T1 | 56.20 ± 0.04b | 10.23 ± 0.04b | 29.60 ± 0.05b | 0.52 ± 0.03c | 1.29 ± 0.03d | 7.42 ± 0.09d | 73.18 ± 0.07b | 33.57 ± 0.04d | 1.67 ± 0.06c |
| T2 | 52.69 ± 0.06c | 8.55 ± 0.06c | 27.98 ± 0.05c | 0.60 ± 0.08b | 1.45 ± 0.05c | 10.16 ± 0.06c | 68.52 ± 0.05c | 34.24 ± 0.04c | 1.73 ± 0.05bc |
| T3 | 44.14 ± 0.05d | 7.71 ± 0.04d | 26.95 ± 0.03d | 0.67 ± 0.07b | 1.55 ± 0.02b | 12.94 ± 0.09b | 64.77 ± 0.07d | 34.90 ± 0.03b | 1.79 ± 0.05b |
| T4 | 38.85 ± 0.04e | 6.14 ± 0.06e | 24.10 ± 0.04e | 0.78 ± 0.02a | 1.70 ± 0.05a | 16.41 ± 0.08a | 60.31 ± 0.03e | 35.47± 0.09a | 1.88 ± 0.04a |
100% wheat flour, T1 = 95% wheat flour and 5% muskmelon seed flour, T2 = 90% wheat flour and 10% muskmelon seed flour, T3 = 85% wheat flour and 15% muskmelon seed flour, and T4 = 80% wheat flour and 20% muskmelon seed flour.
All values were taken in triplicate and expressed as mean ± standard deviation. The values indicated by the same superscripted letters in the same column do not differ significantly from each other; P ≤ 0.05.
Texture analysis
The hardness of the biscuits got significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased by the increasing the amount of muskmelon seed flour and it has a non-significant impact on the cohesiveness of biscuits, as indicated in Table 2. The increased hardness is due to the high fiber content in the muskmelon seeds which results in tougher and less tender texture of the biscuits (Kaur et al., 2019). The flour of muskmelon seeds has high protein content that gave strength to the gluten network and play role in firmness of the biscuits. Substituting muskmelon seed flour for wheat flour reduces the overall starch content, resulting in a firmer texture (Zhang et al., 2023). Also, high fat content in muskmelon seeds typically interferes with gluten formation and produces a crumblier texture, but its effect is relatively minor (Lau et al., 2021).
Our results align with those of Wani et al. (2012), in which cookies were prepared by integrating protein isolates of watermelon seeds, and the texture became harder by increasing protein isolates. In another study, bean hulls were crunched to produce flour, which was added to wheat flour to make a high-fiber loaf. The results implicated that the hardness of the bread was increased by increasing the amount of bean husk flour because of more fiber content in them (Ni et al., 2020).
Proximate composition analysis
The proximate composition of muskmelon seeds and biscuits are given in Tables 1 and 3, respectively. As illustrated in Table 3, increasing the amount of muskmelon seed flour significantly (P ≤ 0.05) enhances the moisture, ash, protein, fiber, and fat while reducing the carbohydrate content of biscuits. The variation in nutritional composition is due to the internal properties of muskmelon seeds. The seeds of muskmelon contain fibers of hydrophilic nature thus they retain more moisture levels in the biscuits and as a result the moisture content of biscuits has been increased (Gómez-García et al., 2020)sustainability of food processing is a major concern coupled to the reduction of waste generation. Fruit and vegetable processing require of modernization to valorize the waste and by-products highly generated, particularly because they are rich in natural beneficial components which are demanded to human health. Melon (Cucumis melo L.. Muskmelon seeds have a more protein content that resulted in an increased protein content of the final product (Zhang et al., 2023).
Similarly, the ash content of the biscuits was increased due to the increase in mineral content as muskmelon seeds are a good source of potassium, magnesium, and calcium. The high composition of dietary fibers in muskmelon significantly improved the fiber content of the biscuits, promoted digestive health and gave feeling of fullness (Gómez-García et al., 2020).
Muskmelon seeds have unsaturated fatty acids and other beneficial fats that contributed to the enhanced fat content of the biscuits and improved the flavor and texture. In contrast to all these proximate parameters, the carbohydrate content of the biscuits got decreased by increasing the amount of muskmelon seed flour because wheat content was decreased in the biscuits. Muskmelon seeds have lower carbohydrate content as compared to the wheat flour that resulted in decreased carbohydrate content of the biscuits (Zhang et al., 2022). Similar findings have been given by Kaur et al. (2017), in which the cookies were baked by adding flax seed flour in a common recipe for the biscuits. In another research, the addition of protein isolates of watermelon seeds resulted in higher values of protein, fiber, ash, moisture, and fat contents and lower values of carbohydrate content (Wani et al., 2012). Laczkowski et al. (2021) prepared cookies by incorporating chia seed flour and reported similar outcomes as that of proximate composition.
Analysis of antioxidants
Increasing muskmelon seed flour in biscuit recipe significantly increased (P ≤ 0.05) TPC, TFC, and DPPH inhibition values as shown in Table 4. Increase in antioxidant properties is primarily due to the high concentrations of phenolic and flavonoid compounds in muskmelon seeds. These compounds are incorporated in the biscuits when the flour of muskmelon seeds has been added to the biscuit dough and results in increased phenolic content. Polyphenols and flavonoids play an important role in the antioxidant potential of the food products. The antioxidant potential of the food products is usually measured through the DPPH radical scavenging activity which shows the ability of the product to neutralize the harmful radicals. Antioxidants present in the food samples donate hydrogen atoms or electrons to neutralize the DPPH radical that results in conversion of DPPH radical to a non-radical form which is shown by a color change from violet to yellow or colorless (Gómez-García et al., 2020). The increased antioxidant levels in the food contribute to the better health by reducing the oxidative stress in the body (Ismail et al., 2010). Our results agree with those of Wani et al. (2012), in which the addition of watermelon seed protein isolate resulted in an increased TPC, TFC, and DPPH inhibition values. In another study, Dhen et al. (2018) produced bread by adding apricot kernels and showed that the values of TPC, TFC, and DPPH inhibition enhanced by increasing the amount of apricot kernel flour.
Table 4. Antioxidant analysis of muskmelon seeds-fortified biscuits.
| Treatments | TPC (mg GAE/mL) | TFC (mg CE/g) | % DPPH inhibition |
|---|---|---|---|
| T0 | 85.52 ± 0.05e | 54.84 ± 0.09e | 48.63 ± 0.04e |
| T1 | 110.39 ± 0.06d | 68.43 ± 0.03d | 54.17 ± 0.01d |
| T2 | 129.64 ± 0.04c | 85.26 ± 0.08c | 56.91 ± 0.09c |
| T3 | 165.29 ± 0.07b | 118.73 ± 0.05b | 61.32 ± 0.07b |
| T4 | 210.54 ± 0.04a | 142.28 ± 0.03a | 65.54 ± 0.05a |
T0 = 100% wheat flour, T1 = 95% wheat flour and 5% muskmelon seed flour, T2 = 90% wheat flour and 10% muskmelon seed flour, T3 = 85% wheat flour and 15% muskmelon seed flour, T4 = 80% wheat flour and 20% muskmelon seed flour. TPC: total phenolic content; TFC: total flavonoid content; DPPH: 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl.
All values were taken in triplicate and expressed as mean ± standard deviation. The values indicated by the same superscripted letters in the same column do not differ significantly from each other; P ≤ 0.05.
Scanning electron miscroscopy analysis
The addition of muskmelon seed flours significantly modified the microstructure of the biscuits, as shown in Figure 1. The scans of SEM showed changes in the size and location of pores within the biscuit matrix. The rheological properties of the dough were affected by the addition of muskmelon seed flour that resulted in a distinct porosity pattern. Biscuits showed smaller and more consistently distributed pores than those samples that were prepared by only wheat flour. The surface texture of biscuits was altered, with SEM demonstrating a potentially rougher or more uneven surface due to the presence of coarser particles of muskmelon seed flour. This modified the mouthfeel of the biscuits and overall perception of texture (Jiang et al., 2021). The incorporation of muskmelon seed flour affected the density of the biscuit. SEM images showed a more compact structure, showing that the particles of the muskmelon seed flour are well integrated into the dough, filling the gaps between the protein and starch network. This interaction affected the development of the gluten network, resulting in a distinct structural arrangement compared to conventional biscuits (Jia et al., 2020).
Figure 1. SEM analysis of biscuits with (A) 100% wheat flour, (B) 5% addition of muskmelon seed flour, (C) 10% addition of muskmelon seed flour, (D) 15% addition of muskmelon seed flour, and (E) 20% addition of muskmelon seed flour.
The flour of muskmelon seeds is rich in dietary fiber, which can be observed in SEM scans as fibrous structures inside the biscuit matrix. The presence of these fibers can give strength to the structure and contribute to a strong textural property. SEM examination showed variations in the development and stability of air cells within the biscuits. Incorporating muskmelon seed flour can lead to a distinct pattern of air cell distribution, thereby changes the volume and crunchiness of the finally prepared biscuits (Laczkowski et al., 2021).
Fourier transform-infrared analysis
The incorporation of muskmelon seed flour gave significant alterations in composition, starch-protein interaction, functional components, and functional groups of the biscuits, as shown in Figure 2. Adding muskmelon seed flour to biscuits would likely to impact the FTIR spectra of biscuits by modifying their chemical makeup and molecular interactions. FTIR analysis assisted in discovering these alterations by comparing the FTIR spectra of biscuits with and without muskmelon seed flour. Muskmelon seed flour contains proteins, contributing to amide I (about 1,650 cm–1) and amide II (approximately 1,550 cm–1) bands in FTIR spectrum. The intensity and shape of these bands could be altered, reflecting variations in protein concentrations and structure (Baltacıoğlu et al., 2021). Adding muskmelon seed flour, including lipids, could modify the lipid-related absorption bands. Notable locations include the C-H stretching vibrations of about 2,850–2,950 cm–1 and the carbonyl (C=O) stretching vibration near 1,740 cm–1. These alterations suggest variations in the lipid composition of biscuits. Changes in carbohydrate concentration and structure, including starch and non-starch polysaccharides, could be noted. The C-O-C and C-OH stretching vibrations (about 1,000–1,200 cm–1) could reveal changes, indicating the inclusion of muskmelon seed flour. Muskmelon seed flour is rich in dietary fiber, which can be represented in FTIR spectra. Peaks linked with cellulosic and hemicellulosic materials, typically around 1,030–1,100 cm–1, might rise in intensity. Water and hydroxyl groups (O-H stretching) may be reflected in variations in broad absorption band around 3,200–3,600 cm–1. Adding muskmelon seed flour could change both moisture content and hydrogen bonding interactions in biscuit matrix (Pattnaik and Mishra, 2022).
Figure 2. FTIR analysis of biscuits. T0 = 100% wheat flour, T1 = 95% wheat flour and 5% muskmelon seed flour, T2 = 90% wheat flour and 10% muskmelon seed flour, T3 = 85% wheat flour and 15% muskmelon seed flour, and T4 = 80% wheat flour and 20% muskmelon seed flour.
Sensory evaluation
The addition of muskmelon seed flour had a significant (P ≤ 0.05) impact on the sensory properties of biscuits. The scent and sweetness of biscuits were enhanced, while crunchiness and oiliness decreased. The 10% replacement of wheat flour with muskmelon seed flour in a typical biscuit-making recipe achieved better overall appeal, as illustrated in Figure 3. The literature reveals that adding muskmelon seed flour to biscuits increases scent and sweetness because of high fiber content and natural sweetness. Enhancement in aroma was more pronounced when utilizing formulations with higher proportion of muskmelon seed flour, demonstrating a positive association between the amount of muskmelon seed flour and the aroma intensity of biscuits. Moreover, muskmelon seed flour includes natural sugars that contribute to the taste of biscuits. The higher the percentage of muskmelon seed flour used in recipe, the sweeter are the biscuits (Gómez-García et al., 2020).
Figure 3. Sensory analysis of biscuits. T0 = 100% wheat flour, T1 = 95% wheat flour and 5% muskmelon seed flour, T2 = 90% wheat flour and 10% muskmelon seed flour, T3 = 85% wheat flour and 15% muskmelon seed flour, and T4 = 80% wheat flour and 20% muskmelon seed flour.
Earlier, cookies were prepared by including fluted pumpkin seed flour, which showed hardness (texture) and low overall acceptance from blends containing more than 15% pumpkin flour to a crumbly texture, beany taste, and darkening of cookies (Giami et al., 2005). In another study, cookies were prepared by adding bitter gourd protein isolates, and the sensory attributes changed among different treatments as the quantity of protein isolate increased from 5% to 20%. Supplementation of cookies with any component influenced their color, flavor, taste, and texture (Batool et al., 2021).
Conclusion
Muskmelon seeds are an abundant source of proteins, dietary fiber, minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants. Incorporating muskmelon seed flour into biscuits improved their protein content, dietary fiber, TPC, and TFC. Textural analysis demonstrated that biscuits became slightly firmer, which helped them retain their shape after the addition of muskmelon seed flour. SEM revealed increased porosity in biscuits, leading to enhanced nutrient and ingredient absorption within the protein–starch matrix. FTIR analysis showed greater infrared light absorption in samples with higher concentrations of muskmelon seed flour, indicating an improvement in nutritional and functional profiles. Sensory evaluation of the muskmelon seed-fortified biscuits indicated their appealing aroma, texture, taste, and flavor. The biscuits with 10% replacement of wheat flour with muskmelon seed flour gained the highest scores in terms of overall acceptability.
For future research, it would be suitable to carry out sensory evaluations by involving both trained and untrained panelists to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the biscuits’ sensorial characteristics. This approach would give a comparison between the perceptions of experts and the general consumers, offering more detailed results into the product’s acceptance and potential areas for further improvement. By involving a more diverse panel, the sensory findings across different demographic groups can be enhanced.
Utilization of cucurbit seeds to produce health beneficial and functional foods gives several industrial benefits. Cucurbit seeds are rich source of protein, minerals, vitamins, and healthy fats. Adding them to produce functional foods can improve the nutritional worth of these products and give various health benefits to the consumers. Addition of these seeds into the food products will differentiate the newly developed food products in the market, making them more attractive to health-conscious consumers. These seeds are also considered as waste products of the muskmelon fruit, the food industry can make sustainable use the available resources and an effective food waste management. This approach agrees with the sustainable development goals and can contribute to the concept of circular bioeconomy. Companies that add cucurbit seeds into their food products will increase their sustainability credentials and brand image. This is more important as consumers and businesses will focus on responsible consumption and production.
Author Contributions
Najla Al Masoud: conceptualization, investigation, data curation, writing original draft, writing review and editing, supervision. Syed Ali Hassan: conceptualization, investigation, methodology, data collection, experimentation, writing original draft, writing review and editing. Taghrid S. Alomar: conceptualization, investigation, writing review and editing. Waqar Mujahid: data collection, experimentation, writing review and editing. Rana Muhammad Aadil: conceptualization, investigation, formal analysis, data curation, writing original draft, writing review and editing, supervision. All authors read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Ethical Approval
The sensory evolution was carried out at the National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Pakistan with the approval of Institutional Ethical Committee (IEC) (D# 1913/ORIC) as per the standards of Health and Human Protection Services. The panelists were untrained university students who participated voluntarily in this sensory evaluation activity. The samples served were pretested as per safety protocols to minimize the risk of allergy and toxicity.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declared no conflict of interest.
Declaration of AI Statement
During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used AI-based tools to correct the grammatical errors of the manuscript.
Acknowledgments
The authors were thankful to Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers for Supporting Project No. HCPNU2024R18), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Funding
We are thankful to Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers for Supporting Project number (HCPNU2024R18), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
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